of transparency here. I applied the same logic to the graphical representation of /ju/ with the symbol <µ>.

I will use complete romanisation in addition to the cyrillic-inspired iotised vowels along with minor use of

diacritics in this grammar. The graphemes < ð >, < ŋ > and < ʒ >, which are taken directly from the IPA,

will also be used. A Veridian orthography is planned for the future.

8

3.6.1.1 Vowels

Phoneme

Graphical

representation

(romanisation)

a

ja

ɛ

jɛ

ij, ɨ

ɔ

jɔ

u

ju

y

œ

a

ꙗ (ja)

e

ѥ (je)

i

o

ю (jo)

u

µ (ju)

y

œ/oe

3.6.1.2 Consonants

Graphemes that differ from the IPA symbol are bolded.

Phoneme

Graphical

representation

(romanisation)

b

d

dz

ð

θ

f

g

x

j

b

d

dz

ð

th

f

g

x

j

9

k

lj

ɫ

m

n

ŋ

p

r

s

ʃ

ʃjʃj

ts

t

tj

tʃ

v

ʒ

z

k

l‘

l

m

n

ŋ

p

r

s

ṡ

ṩ

ts

t

ћ (t’)

ċ

v

ʒ

z

4 NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

4.1 GENDER CLASSES

Veriden’s nouns are sorted into two main gender classes, animate (anim.) and inanimate (inan.). The

animate class contains two sub-classes, namely animate and feminine-animate (fem.-anim.). In addition

to the animate and inanimate genders, there is a third, optional, overriding gender class called honorum,

which will be presented after the grammatically inherent genders.

Nouns are classified into the gender classes based on semantic attributes, primarily animacy and sex. There

is no way to deduce a noun’s grammatical gender by its formal appearance. If a noun is semantically

10

inanimate (objects, institutions, etc.), it is grammatically inanimate. If a noun is semantically alive, it is

grammatically animate. If the designatum is additionally female, it is feminine-animate.

Table 2. Graphical depiction of grammatical gender in Old High Veriden.

Animatum

Inanimatum

Most biologically living beings,

All objects, many plants and insects,

deities and spirits,

non-living natural entities, etc.

some natural phenomena and entities

(e.g. zej fem.-anim. ‘sea, ocean’)

Animatum

Femininum-

Default class, as above

Animatum

All specifically female

animate entities, plus

lexicalised exceptions

[Honorum]

—

Optional gender that “overrides” the naturally assigned gender.

This applies only to nouns, not to attributes.

4.1.1 The Animate Class

Nouns referring to biologically living beings (humans, animals) as well as religious entities (spirits, gods,

etc.) are considered grammatically animate. Nouns are classified as animatum or femininum-animatum,

which both follow seperate paradigms. Adjectives, pronouns, etc. follow animated paradigms in congruence,

but do not differentiate between general and feminine animacy5. Observe:

(1) Jenerilik ikal’ rillje.

ACC.-rich-DET. ACC.-woman see-I.

(2) Jenerilik ohel’ rillje.

ACC.-rich-DET. ACC.-man see-I.

5 A speaker of Veriden has the choice to use inanimate markers for an animate noun, but this is considered a verbal
offense and should be practised with caution.

11

The words for ‘woman’ kal’ and ‘man’ hel’ inflect differently: kal’ is fem.-anim. and hel’ is anim. The

adjective erilik ‘rich’ however inflects only for the quality of animacy by using the accusative marker

{jen-}6, ignoring the sex-based differentiation between the anim. and fem.-anim. class.

The animatum class contains two specific traits that are not shared by the inanimatum gender. First, the

accusitive and genitive cases are always syncretic in animate paradigms, which is a trait inspired by Slavic

languages. Second, the plural forms of animate nouns follow specific derivational patterns, which will be

implemented in a future update.

The declension of animate nouns is shown in the table below. Veridian nouns inflect according to the

following pattern:

[case marker] – [STEM] – [case and number] – [opt. postfix]

The prefix is the case marker while the suffix denotes case and number, and as such the absence of the

suffix implies singularity7. An additional vowel (shown in parenthesis) is added to the suffix in some cases

to aid pronounciation.

Table 3. Vocalic declension of animate nouns.

Case

Nom.

Gen.

Dat.

Acc.

Loc.

Instr.

Animate

Feminine-Animate

Example (sg., pl.)

–

-(m)in8

l-

-(i)n

ð-

-(a)n

l-

-(i)n

m-

-(e)t

k-

-(e)t

–

-(a)j

lj-

-(a)n

ð-

-(a)n

lj-

-(a)n

m-

-(e)t

ts-

-(e)t

ame ‘Master’, amemin

enjiv ‘aunt’, enjivaj ‘aunts’

lame, lamen

ljenjiv, ljenjivan

ðame, ðamen

ðenjiv, ðenjivan

lame, lamen

ljenjiv, ljenjivan

mame, mamet

menjiv, menjivet

kame, kamet

tsenjiv, tsenjivet

6 The marker for inanimate adjectives (and entities inflecting as adjectives) is {je-, jej-}.
7 When referring to humans or respected entities, the vocative must always be used in the plural form, i.e. with the
suffix. Using it without the suffix, i.e. as a would-be singular form, is perceived at best as a sarcastic adress (as in:
“Oh, housework, won’t you do yourself?”) and at worst as a personal affront.
8 Lexeme-specific allomorphs are not noted in this table and are discussed at a later chapter in this grammar.

12

Voc.

es- -ðor

is- -ðor

esameðor

isenjivðor

Table 4. j-Declension of animate nouns.

Case

Nom.

Gen.

Dat.

Acc.

Loc.

Instr.

Voc.

Animate

Feminine-Animate

Example

–

-(m)in

l- -(i)n

–

-(a)j

l- -(a)n

z- -(a)n

z- -(a)n

l- -(i)n

l- (a)n

jujut ‘eunuch’, jujutin

joris ‘Madame, Mistress’, jorisaj

ljujut, ljututin

ljoris, ljorisan

zjujut, zjututan

zjoris, zjorisan

ljujut, ljujutin

ljoris, ljorisan

m- -(e)t

m- -(e)t

mjujut, mjujutet

k- -(e)t

t’- (e)t

s- -ðor

s- -ðor

mjoris, mjorist

kjujut, kjututet

t’joris, t’jorist

sjujutðor

sjorisðor

Table 5. Consonantal declension of animate nouns.

Case

Nom.

Gen.

Dat.

Acc.

Loc.

Animate

–

-(m)in

o-

-(i)n

ða-

-(a)n

o-

-(i)n

Feminine-Animate

Example

–

-(a)j

i-

-(e)n

thi-

-(a)n

i-

-(e)n

xel’ ‘man’, xel’in

kal’ ‘woman’, kal’i9

oxel’, oxel’in

ikal’, ikal’en

ðaxel’, ðaxel’an

thikal’, thikal’an

oxel’, oxel’in

ikal’, ikal’en

ma- -(e)t

ma- -(e)t

maxel’, maxel’et

9 Kal’i uses an allomorph for the nominative plural, which is discussed elsewhere.

13

Instr.

Voc.

xa- -(e)t

xa- -(e)t

(e)(s)- -ðor

(i)(s)- -ðor

makal’, makal’et

xaxel’, xaxel’et

xakal’, xakal’et

esxel’ðor

iskal’ðor

4.1.2 Inanimate Class

All nouns that do not fall into the animate class default into the inanimate class. Unlike the animate

paradigm, the inanimate declension does not have syncretism between accusative and genitive. Instead, the

nominative and accusative forms are the same. The three declension paradigms for inanimate nouns are

displayed in the table below. Again, suffixes are added to denote plurality.

Table 6. Consonantal, vocalic, and j-declension for inanimate nouns.

Case

Consonantal

Vocalic

j-declension

Examples

Nom.

–

-(a)t

o-

-(a)t

ne-

-(a)t

Gen.

Dat.

Acc.

–

-(a)t

ma-

-(a)t

xa-

-(a)t

Loc.

Instr.

Voc.

–

–

-(a)t

l-

-(a)t

n-

-(a)t

–

-(a)t

m-

-(a)t

x-

-(a)t

–

–

-(a)t

l-

-(a)t

n-

-(a)t

–

-(a)t

m-

-(a)t

ṩ-

-(a)t

–

kimery ‘garden’, kimeryt

ithrun ‘flame’, ithrunat

jeva ‘quill’, jevat

okimery, okimeryt

lithrun, lithrunat

ljeva, ljevat

nekimery, nekimeryt

nithrun, nithrunat

njeva, njevat

kimery, kimeryt

ithrun, ithrunat

jeva, jevat

makimery, makimeryt

mithrun, mithrunat

mjeva, mjevat

xakimery, xakimeryt

xithrun, xithrunat

ṩjeva, ṩjevat

14

4.1.3 Honorum Class

While gender in Veriden is inherent for all nouns, there is a third class that can override the inherent gender

of a noun. This “gender”, the honorum, is used to treat the noun it is applied to with high regard and respect.

It is part of Veriden’s extensive tradition of politeness and, with only one exception, cannot appear as an

inherent gender10. The honorum carries strong semantic weight and is used on nouns that demand high

respect or reverence, including items (such as holy relics, or jokingly for mundane objects).

A speaker may refer to a person or an item with intentional regard by adding the postfix {-ðor} to the noun

in question, which derived from the vocative form of the honorum declension. Using this as a postfix does

not alter the noun’s inherent grammatical gender. Alternatively, a speaker may decline the noun according

to the honorum paradigm, which is described below. This phenomenon and its pragmatic possibilities will

be explored in detail in a later chapter.

The (in)animacy of the noun is shown through the congruent elements, which are not affected by the

honorum.

The table below shows the honorum paradigm, as it would be applied to a chosen word. Elements in

parenthesis are added if the begins (or in the case of plurals, ends) with a consonants. Just as in animate

nouns, the genitive and accusative are syncretic.

Table 7. Honorum nominal declension.

Case

Nom.

Gen.

Dat.

Acc.

Consonantal

Vocalic

Example

–

-ris

o-

-ris

ða-

-rim

o-

–

-ris

lj-

-ris

ð-

-rim

lj-

saṡufaða ‘a kind of spirit’,

saṡufaðris

ild ‘life’, ildris

osaṡufaða, osaṡufaðris

ljild, ljildris

ðasaṡufaða, ðasaṡufaðrim

ðild, ðildrim

osaṡufaða, osaṡufaðris

10 This is the formal address ðor, which translates to a combination of “Lord/Lady”, “Master/Mistress”, “Sir/Madame”.
It is coincidentally also the vocative marker for animate nouns. When used as an adress (and not as a purely
grammatical element), it must follow the honorum declension. In combination with any other gender paradigm, it
would be considered ungrammatical. When using it as an address in conversation (spoken or written), it is considered
proper to use the plural form ðɔrijn, particularly when in contact with a person of considerably higher rank

15

Loc.

Instr.

-ris

ma-

-res

xa-

-res

-ris

m-

-res

x- / ṩ-

-res

Voc.

(e)(s)- -ðor

(i)(s)- -ðor

ljild, ljildris

masaṡufaða, maṡufaðres

mild, mildres

xasaṡufaða, xasaṡufaðres

xild, xildres

esaṡufaða-ðor

sild-ðor

4.2 NUMBER

4.2.1 Cardinal Numbers

Veriden has a decimal system with a largely regular structure.

1) tet’

2) ka

3) sin

4) kat’

5) pet’

6) prat’

7) pit’

8) ota

9) oka

10) talje

11) tal’te

12) tal’ka

13) tal’sin

14) tal’kat’

15) tal’pet’

16) tal’prat’

17) tal’pit’

18) tal’ota

30) sinta

40) katta

50) petsta

60) pratta

70) pitta

80) otanta

90) okanta

100) ṡut

101) ṡut-tet’

117) ṡut-tal’pit’

147) ṡut-pitskatta

200)

300)

400)

500)

600)

kaṡt

siṡt

kaċit

peċit

praċit

16

19) tal’oka

20) kanta

21)

tekanta

22) kakanta

23) sinkanta

24) katskanta

25) petskanta

26) pratskanta

27) pitskanta

28) otkanta

29) okakanta

700)

800)

900)

1000)

2000)

3000)

9000)

piċit

otaṡt

okaṡt

oċ

ka oċt

sin oċt

oka oċt

10000)

talje oċt

20000)

kanta oċt

4.2.2 Ordinal Numbers

The derivation of ordinal numbers is regular: the suffix {-me} (or allomorph {-m}) is attached to the root

of the cardinal number. There are only few irregular forms. Ordinal numbers are inflected using adjective

prefixes, choosing the non-syllabic variant, e.g. the morpheme for animated instrumental adjectives can be

expressed as {my-} or {m-}. Ordinal numbers will never inflected with {my-} in this case, but always with

{-m}. The only exception to this rule is the inanimate genitive marker, which cannot be {j-} before a

consonant, which case the allomorph {ja-} is preferred.

In grammatical context, only the first numeral is inflected for case, but every numeral is used as an ordinal

number (as opposed to e.g. English, which only uses the last digit as a cardinal). Examples follow below.

First – al’me

Second – kme

Third – sime

Fourth – katme

Fifth – petme

Sixth – prame

Seventh – pitme

Eighth – otme

Ninth – okeme

11th – tal’tme

12th – tal’kme

13th – tal’sime

…

20th – kantam

25th – petskantam

30th – sintam

40th – kattam

100th – ṡetem

200th – kaṡtem

300th – simtem

400th – katem

500th – peċem

600th – pramem

700th – pitem

800th – oċtem

900th – okṡtem

17

Tenth – tal’me

50th – petstam

60th – pratame

70th – pitame

80th – ottam

90th – okkam

543rd – peċem simekattam

1000th – tet’-oċem

2000th – ka-oċtem

3000th – sin-oċtem…

(3) Jal’me ohel’ rillje.

GEN.-first GEN.-man see-1STPERSSGPRES.

I see the first man.

(4) Đerdabue sime dabue ep japiċit-tal’ka að, ðeratr-ði kop otme-ottam.

DAT.-player-his third game out of GEN.-sevenhundred-twelve was-3RDPERSSGPAST, DAT.-

opponent-his but NOM.-eighty-eighth.

It was the player’s third game out of sevenhundred and twelve, but it was the opponent’s eigthy-

eighth.

4.3 PRONOUNS

4.3.1 Personal Pronouns

Veridian personal pronouns are highly regular and systematic, but they are relatively rarely used in

conversation or written word as nominatives. Thanks to the breadth of nominal and verbal inflection, the

actors become evident without needing to be specifically named. When personal pronouns are used in the

nominative case, it is usually to bring explicit awareness to the actor.

1st Pers. Sg. 2nd Pers.

3rd Pers.

3rd Pers.

1st

Pers.

2nd Pers.

3rd Pers.

Nom.

Gen.

Dat.

sa

sja

si

Sg.

va

vija

vi

Sg., m.,n.

Sg., f.

Pl.

ða

ðija

ði

ðe

ðeja

ðej

alem

alija

al’a

Pl.

da

dja

daja

Pl.

ta

t’ja

taja

18

Acc.

Instr.

Loc.

Voc.

sje

sam

vje

vam

thje

ðam

ðeje

ðam

alje

almy

dalje

damy

talje

tamy

samoe

vamoe

ðamoe

ðamoe

almoe

damoe

tamoe

—

vale!

—

—

—

dale!

—

4.3.2 Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns do not inflect and are typically added to the possessed noun as a postfix (ex. (5)).

My

Your

His/her

Our

Saj

Vaj

Ðej

Sej

Your (pl.)

Their

Von

Ðom

(5) Kimeryvai rillje.

ACC.-garden-POSSPRON-your see-1STPERSSGPRES.

‘I see your garden.’

If the speaker wishes to bring special awareness to the possessor, he may express it by setting the NP of the

possessor into the dative case, followed by the possessive pronoun, also in the dative case, as in example

(6). Note that the possessed object continues to be governed by the predicate.

(6) Zjoris ðej kimery rillje.

DAT.-Mistress POSSPRONDAT-her ACC.-garden see-1STPERSSGPRES.

‘I see the Mistress’ garden.’

The same principle can be applied on a pronoun instead of a noun, as in ‘I see your garden, but not mine.’

In this case, the pronoun and possessive marker merge into one wordform (here: vevaj and sesaj).

(7) Vevaj kimery rillje, kop sesaj eċ.

19

DAT.PERS.PRON.You-POSS.PRON.DAT.-your ACC.-garden see-1STPERSSGPRES, but

PERS.PRON.DAT.me-POSS.PRON.DAT.-my not.

‘I see your garden, but not mine.’

4.3.3 Relative Pronouns

animate sg.

feminine-

inanimate sg. plural

animate sg.

kan

jekan

nakan

jekan

Nom.

kos

jekos

nakos

jekos

Gen.

Dat.

Acc.

Instr.

Loc.

mykos

mykan

oekos

oekan

da

jada

nada

jeda

myda

oeda

rod

jarod

narod

jerod

myrod

oerod

4.4 ADJECTIVES

Again, some forms have allomorphs that depend on the phonetic environment. The plural endings are the

same as the noun they are syntactically connected to.

Inanimatum

Animatum

Examples (undetermined)

Case

Nom.

–

Gen.

ja-, j-

–

jen-

erilin xel’ – rich man

mit dabue – good game

jenerilin oxel’ – of a rich man

jamit odabue – of a good game

Dat.

na-, n-

na-, n-

nerilin ðaxel’ – to/for a rich man

Acc.

je-, jej-

jen-

namit nedabue – to/for a good game

jenerilin oxel’ – a rich man

jemit dabue – a good game

Instr.

am-, m-

my-, m-

merilin maahel’ – with a rich man

ammit madabue – with a good game

20

Loc.

œm-

œm-

œmerilin xahel’ – on/about a rich man

œmmit xadabue – on/about a good game

Voc.

–

–

4.5 DERIVATION

4.5.1 Derivation of nouns

The following derivational morphs are used in Veriden:

Formant

Usage

Example

er-

to-

personifier, someone who does or

er + drak ‘blood’ > erdrak ‘murderer’

causes this (negative connotation)

er + atr ‘against’ > opponent, competition

personifier, someone who deals with

to + drak ‘blood’ > todrak ‘bloodletter’

this in a positive way

jol’n-

beyond

the

scope;

further;

jol’n + ild ‘life’ > jol’nild ‘survival’

continuous over…

jol’n + idu ‘time’ > jol’nidu ‘afterlife’

-esten, -isten

substantivation of verbs

prad-ja ‘to meet’ + -esten > pradjesten

‘meeting’

tla-ja ‘to drink’ + -esten > tlajesten

(drinking)

korat-ij ‘to wait, meditate’ + -isten >

koratisten ‘meditation; waiting’

4.5.2 Derivation of Adjectives

In order to derive an adjective from a noun, the stressed vowel of the stem of the noun from which the

adjective is derived undergoes a systematic vowel shift (barring exceptions and natural processes). This

process is based on the rounding/unrounding of the vowel. The case markers themselves are derived from

21

the personal pronouns. Note: colours do not adhere to the vowel shift rule, so for example ar ‘red’, n. will

as an adjective be arn.

Vowel alternations:

i <> y

e <> œ

a <> i or o

o <> e

u <> o or a

+ {-n} or {-in}

Adjectives can be determined or undetermined, which becomes apparent in the suffix. The suffix {-n}/{-

in} ({-n} when the stem ends on a vowel, barring exceptions) is attached to the stem when the adjective is

undetermined. Determined adjectives carry the suffix {-k} or {-ik}. In some cases, the last syllable is

shortened in favour of the adjective marker (as in mitoma > mite min, ‘sharp’, see examples).

Examples (undetermined):

(cid:131) kali, n. ‘girl’ > kilin, adj. ‘girlish, childlike’

(cid:131) gald, n. ‘autumn’ > goldin, adj. ‘autumn’

(cid:131) mitoma, n. ‘thorn, blade’ > mitemin, adj. ‘sharp’

(cid:131)

thrun, n. ‘fire’ > thronin, adj. ‘firey’

Examples (determined):

(cid:131) vrel, n. ‘wisdom’ > vrœlik, adj. ‘this wise’

(cid:131) œril, n. ‘money, coin’ > erilik, adj. ‘this rich’

22

Notable exceptions:

These adjectives (along with some others) are further relics from Veriden’s linguistic past, and are

exceptions to the above rule. In this list, the first form is the undetermined adjective, the second is

determined.

(cid:131) kojœ, n. ‘cleanliness, pureness’ > kojœm/ikojœ, adj. ‘clean, pure’

(cid:131) xeŋesij, n. ‘holy wisdom’ > xeŋ/xenek, adj. ‘enlightened’

(cid:131) mit/imit, adj. ‘good’

(cid:131) xak/ixak, adj. ‘dangerous, intimidating’

(cid:131) oja/ixoja, adj. ‘shapely, round, full, satisfying, enticing’

(cid:131) mivatrij/mivatrik, adj. ‘beautiful’

(cid:131) nimlaarij/nimlaarik, adj. ‘strong’

(cid:131)

frinjem/frinik, adj. ‘cold’

4.5.3 Comparation of Adjectives

The comparative form of adjectives is created with the addition of the prefix {-itr-, -itra-}, the superlative

form is created by using {-itrait-}. The adjective case markers are placed in front of the prefix. The

following table demonstrates several adjectives as they would appear in various cases.

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

Translation

thronin

mitrathronin

mitraitronin [reduction of

firey > more firey >

-tth- to -t-]

most firey; instr. sg.

nerilin

nitrerilin

nitraiterilin

rich > richer >

richest; sg. animate,

undetermined

inanimate,

determined

23

Table 8. Selection of irregular adjective comparations.

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

Translation

mit / imit

jenljet / iljet

jenljejet / jeniljejet

good > better > best;

acc. sg. determined/

undetermined

nimlaarij / nimlaarik

nolarij / nolarik

nalarij / nalarik

strong > stronger >

strongest

4.5.4 Derivation of Adverbs

Adverbs are derived from the root of the adjective in question, to which the prefix {ċik-}, {ċi-}, or {ċ-} is

added. The choice of prefix depends largely on the length of the adjective, as Veriden strives for an optimum

of shortness of form and phonetical clarity. The following examples demonstrate the entire derivation

process as begun with the noun, including some irregular patterns, which are marked by colour. Sentences

using these words follow.

Noun

Adjective root

Adverb

Meaning

uexa

rajthura

uoxa

rajthora

ċikuoxa

ċrajthora

love > love-like > lovingly

twilight > half-dark, half-light >

shady (as in shady business)

ċuli

ċal

ċiċal

home > comfortable, familiar >

nimlaar

nimlaar

ċnimlaar

strength >

strong >

strongly,

powerfully

friendly/intimately, comforting in

the way that only a member of a

person’s closest circle can be

(8) The man kissed his wife lovingly.

Hel’ ikal’ðej ċikuoxa mil’as.

Man ACC.-woman-HIS lovingly kiss-3RDPERSAORIST.

24

(9) The thieves exchange coins shadily.

(10)

She embraced me intimately.

Ða sje ċiċal dadjis.

(11)

The wind blew strongly over the land.

5 VERBAL MORPHOLOGY

5.1 CONJUGATIONAL CLASSES

In Veriden, there are two main flectional classes. The larger of the two, conjugation I, contains all transitive

verbs and most non-transitive verbs. Conjugation II is smaller and is semantically motivated: it contains all

verbs of movement, as well as verbs that fall into the area of metaphysics, abstract terms for existing, etc.

(e.g. to transcend, to live/exist, to die, to go, to dream prophetically…) This reflects traditional Veridian

philosophy, which will be elaborated on elsewhere.

If the stem of a verb (historically!) ends on a consonant, the infinitive marker is {-ij}, such as in nir

‘swiftness’ > nirij ‘to hurry’. If a stem historically ends on a vowel, as łauexa ‘love’, the infinitive marker

will be {-ja}: łauexaja ‘to love’. Both infinitive types, {-ij} and {-ja}, imply the conjugation according to

conjugational class I.

For conjugation II, the infinitive is typically {-dʒij}, as in ildʒij, ‘to live’. While the infinitive ending is

always dropped during conjugation, the /d/ remains on the stem in certain environments. Some verbs also

carry the ending {-ij}, and fall into this category based on their semantics, not their formal appearance.

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5.2 TENSES

5.2.1 Present Tenses

Old High Veriden has two present tenses: the Currens and the Inchoative.

5.2.1.1 Currens

The Currens Present designates current states and continuous actions as well as one-time actions taking

place during the moment of speech. This tense is used to describe any state or action that is taking place at

the moment of utterance, and therefore comes very close to the English present continuous. The Currens is

the simplest of all tenses.

Currens Present: Conjugation I

sg.

1. -lje

2. -el

3. -la

Example: jevja, ‘to write’

sg.

1. jevlje

2. jevel

3. jevla

pl.

1. -lim

2. -l‘em

3. -l‘am

pl.

1. jevlim

2. jevl‘em

3. jevl‘am

Currens Present: Conjugation II

sg.

1. -djij

2. -djej

3. -dja

pl.

1. -dim

2. -de

3. -dar

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Example: adʒij, ‘to know’

sg. [dd > d]

1. adjij

2. adjej

3. adja

5.2.1.2 Inchoative

pl.

1. addim

2. adde

3. addar

The Inchoative designates actions about to begin, relative to the moment of utterance.

[work in progress]

5.2.2 Past Tenses

5.2.2.1 Praeteritum

The Praeteritum, or simple past, is used to describe actions (or states) that took place regularly in the past,

and may or may not still reach into the present. The Praeteritum is derived from the stem of the infinitive,

to which the formant {-a-}/{-eja-} and the personal ending is added. Plural forms also follow this pattern,

but contain phonological contractions.

Praeteritum: Conjugation I

sg.

1. -aj /-ejaj

2. -al / ejal

3. -a / -eja

pl.

1. ejim [>ejajim]

2. ejem [>ejajem]

3. ejaam [>ejajam]

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Example: vlemja, ‘to give, to make a gift’

sg.

1. vlemejaj

2. vlemejal

3. vlemeja

pl.

1. vlemejim [>ejajim]

2. vlemejem [>ejajem]

3. vlemejaam [>ejajam]

Praeteritum: Conjugation II

sg.

1. -m / -am

2. -n /-en

3. -d / -ad

Example: ildʒij, ‘to live’

sg.

1. ildjam

2. ildjen

3. ildjad

pl.

-ot (all plurals)

pl.

ildjot (all)

5.2.2.2 Aorist

The Aorist is used to describe actions that took place once (=not recurringly) in the past and are completed.

The Aorist is derived from the infinitive stem, which is modified phonetically according to the following

pattern:

(cid:131)

e, i > a

(cid:131) u > o

(cid:131)

a, o, œ > i

The resulting stem is known as the Aorist stem and is used in the derivation of participles.

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Examples:

(cid:131) pradja ‘to meet’ > prid-

(cid:131)

isudʒij ‘to die’ > isod’-

(cid:131) ðoxeja ‘to wait’ > ðixe-

(cid:131)

lauexaja ‘to love’ > laaxa- [contraction of aorist stem: laaxa-

sg.

1. laaxaj

2. laaxal

3. laaxas

Aorist o-conjugation

sg.

1. -j / -ij

2. -l / -al

3. -t / -it

pl.

laaṡus

pl.

-jut

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Examples: isudʒij ‘to die’ > isod’-

sg.

1. isodij

2. isodal

3. isodit

Aorist i-conjugation

sg.

1. -j / -aj

2. -l / -al

3. -t / -at

pl.

isodjut

pl.

-at

Examples: pradja ‘to meet’ > prid-

sg.

1. pridaj

2. pridal

3. prit (!)

pl.

pridat

The third person plural form is prit to avoid homonymy with the plural form.

5.2.3 Future Tenses

Old High Veriden has three future tenses, two of which are periphrastic and make use of the auxiliary ṩa.

The other is a synthetic tense, using only one verb form.

5.2.3.1 Simple Future

The future perfect tense describes actions and states that will be completed in the future – its function is

similar to the Slavic perfective aspect. The paradigm is derived from the infinitive stem, to which the

formant {-ru-} and the personal endings are added.

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Simple Future: Conjugation I

sg.

1. -ruje

2. -ruel’

3. -rula

pl.

1. -ruim

2. -ruem

3. -ruam

Example: jevja, ‘to write’

sg.

1. jevruje

2. jevruel’

3. jevrula

pl.

1. jevruim

2. jevruem

3. jevruam

Simple Future: Conjugation II

The plural of conjugation II is syncretic with the plural of conjugation I, only the singular paradigms differ.

sg.

1. -rud

2. -rudje

3. -rudja

Example: adʒij, ‘to know’

sg.

1. arud

2. arudje

3. arudja

pl.

1. -ruim

2. -ruem

3. -ruam

pl.

1. adruim

2. adruem

3. adruam

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5.2.3.2 ṩa-Future and Plusquamperfect

The ṩa-future tense describes actions and states that will begin in the future. This future is formed

periphrastically, i.e. with the auxiliary ṩa, which is derived from the Old Veriden ṩak, ‘to want, desire’.

Despite its etymological background, ṩa does not carry the implications of a desired or potential action; it

has evolved into a purely grammatical function word.

The auxiliary ṩa has its own conjugation pattern, though it is very similar to the conjugation of iðri and

modal verbs:

sg.

1. ṩa

2. ṩak

3. ṩa

pl.

1. ṩim

2. ṩem

3. ṩim

The conjugated ṩa is then combined with the infinitive to create the ṩa-future (examples (12) and (13)), or

the perfect participle to create the plusquamperfect (example (14)). The auxiliary may be placed relatively

freely, but should be placed either before the connected NP, or behind it with the full verb (see examples).

Syntactically, the auxiliary takes the slot where the optional personal/demonstrative pronouns would go.

(12)

Thlef ṩa jevja.

NOM-Book shall-1ST.PERS.SG. write-INF.

‘I shall write [and finish] a book’.

(13)

Ṩak eaka kjujut iðri.

Shall-2ND.PERS.SG. eternally INSTR.-eunuch be-INF.

‘You shall always be a eunuch.’

(14)

Thlef ṩa javge.

NOM-Book shall-1ST.PERS.SG. written-PERF.PART.

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5.3 PARTICIPLES

Veriden uses participles to modify nouns (ie. a startled child, an on-going event, etc.). Participles are also

used to create the passive, the conditional, as well as in various syntactical settings (as adjectives,

adverbs…). Veriden makes use of adverbial participles, which cannot be inflected, and adjective participles,

which can be inflected.

5.3.1 Adverbial participles

(cid:131)

(cid:131)

(cid:131)

(cid:131)

[infinitive stem] + {-ʃti}

reflexive markers combine with the suffix: {-lʃti}

always bind to the subject of the sentence

cannot be declined

o Tlaalʃti dœja, ʒecejem.

o Drinking beer, we talked.

o Ʒeʃti, tlaajemlje dœja.

o Talking, we drank beer.

5.3.2 Inflected participles

(cid:131) Show simultaneous actions and states

(cid:131) Can be declined into all cases (except vocative)

Present active participle

(cid:131)

(cid:131)

[adj. case marker] + [infinitive stem] + {-koj}

carried out by the noun it modifies

o “We walked beneath the twinkling stars.”

Present passive:

(cid:131)

[adj. case marker] + [infinitive stem] + {-tje}

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(cid:131)

Is carried out on the noun it modifies

o Eċtek ralij oternamr janjexatje opejsaj.

o Not-yet see-1STAOR GEN.-play GEN.-mentioned by GEN.-teacher-my.

o “I haven’t yet seen the play mentioned by my teacher.”

Perfect participles

(cid:131) Demonstrate an action that took place before the action of the main clause

(cid:131) Bind to the subject of the phrase, and are therefore always in the nominative case

(cid:131) Most easily translated with “After…” or phrases such as “Having done something,…”

(cid:131)

(cid:131)

(cid:131)

“Having finished his coffee, the man left for work.” or

“Finished with breakfast, the man left for work.”

[aorist stem] + {-ŋe} or {-ge} (after most consonants)

6 SYNTAX

6.1 CLAUSE STRUCTURE

6.1.1 Head Alignment

Most Veridian Noun Phrases containing complements are head-final (ex. (15) and (16)). Noun Phrases

containing participles are head-final.

(15)

[VP VRillje [NP mivatrik Nvarel]].

I see the beautiful sunrise.

(16)

[VP VRillje [NP mivatrik Nvarel], [CP jeda [VP Vnjexal] ] ].

I see the beautiful sunrise which you mentioned

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Verbal Phrases (VPs) are typically head-final, but the alignment shifts to head-initial in subordinate and

embedded clauses.

Veriden has varying structures for Adjective Phrases (APs). An AP may be head-initial or head-final,

depending on semantics. (…)

6.2 SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Thanks to its variety of cases, Old High Veriden is very flexible in terms of sentence structure. However,

there are several typical patterns that are used most frequently. These are displayed in the table below.

Simple sentence,

SOV

Rilje mivatrik varel.

I

see

the beautiful

standard utterance

sunrise.

Simple sentence II

OSV

Mivatrek varel rilje.

I

see

the beautiful

sunrise. => Pointing out

that I see the sunrise in

particular.

Subordinate and

SVO

…

embedded clauses

6.3 SYNTACTICAL USE OF CASES

6.3.1 Genitive

Genitive of time, e.g. “orajthura” – “by twilight”, used for particular times of day/month/year

6.3.2 Dative

6.3.3 Accusative

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6.3.4 Locative

6.3.5 Instrumental

Instrumental of time: (like Pol. “każdego dnia”, only in instr.), used for stretches of time or regular

occurences

7 PRAGMATICS

[work in progress]

8 TABLES

8.1 IRREGULAR VERBS

iðri

(to be)

Currens

Praeteritum

Aorist

Future

Adverbial

Present

Past

Present

Participle

Participles

Participle

sg.

sg.

= Praet-

sg.

iṡti

active:

ðiŋe

1.

ij

2.

is

3.

ið

1.

ijm

2.

jen

3. að

pl.

pl. (all)

1. edim

iðut

2. edis

3. eda

eritum

1. ðeim

itkoj

passive:

istje

2. ðak

3. ðaim

pl.

1. ruim

2. ruem

3. ruam

jer

sg.

sg.

(to have)

1.

jeje

1.

jaruj

= Praet-

eritum

2.

jer

2.

jar

3.

je

3.

jaje

36

pl.

pl.

1.

jejem

1.

jarim

2.

jerem

2.

jarem

3.

jeju

3.

jaram

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9 EXAMPLES, TEXTS AND TRANSLATIONS

i. Amnaxar xaje ry ðuniversitet thidlim.

INSTR.-every INSTR.-day to DAT.-university go-1STPERSPL.

We go to university every day.

ii.

Tir fl’itan – Like a butterfly

Tir fl’itan

Nebirl’a jolnirla

Omejl’il’ ju seċla

Tharnsaj ry vi nirla.

Like a butterfly

Like butterfly

Tir fl’itan

Flies around a flower

DAT.-flower around-flies-3RDSGCURR

Nebirl’a jolnirla

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And tastes its honeydew

GEN.-Honeydew-its and tastes-3RDSGCURR

Omejl’il’ ju seċla

My soul flies to you.

Soul-my to you flies-3RDSGCURR.

Tharnsaj ry vi nirla.

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iii. Dat Du Min Leevsten Büst (Folk song from Northwest Germany)

Va xatrissaj is

Nimlœ adjel

Thidruje

Orajthura

Lauexalje vje

Oṡax dunruje

Lepnin omoeda

ðoram falla

ðorma falla

Tekto falel

You love-my are

Surely you-know

I will come

By twilight

Dat du min Leevsten büst

Dat du wohl weest

Kumm bi de nacht

Kumm bi de nacht

I love you (not lit. trans.)

Segg, wo du heest

I-will-come by night

Ik kumm um Middernacht

By light of moon

Ik kumm klock een

Father sleeps

Mother sleeps

Vader slöpt

Moder slöpt

Alone you-sleep

Du slöpst aleen

Amrajbet-vje pokruje

Bedroom-door-yours I-knock

Klopp an de Kammerdör

Danruje keln

ðoram vardja

ðorma vardja

Da tet’a thalth

Va xatrissaj is

Nimlœ adjel

Thidruje

Orajthura

Lauexalje vje

Touch the handle

Faat an de Klink

Father thinks

Mother thinks

Vader meent

Moder meent

It’s only the wind

Dat dei de Wind

You love-my are

Surely you-know

I will come

By twilight

I love you

Dat du min Leevsten büst

Dat du wohl weest

Kumm bi de nacht

Kumm bi de nacht

Segg, wo du heest

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