A Grammar of Hiuʦɑθ

Author: Jessie Sams

MS Date: 04-14-2012

FL Date: 05-01-2021

FL Number: FL-000074-00

Citation: Sams, Jessie. 2012. «A Grammar of Hiuʦɑθ» FL-

000074-00, Fiat Lingua,
. Web. 01 May 2021.

under a Creative Commons Attribution-
NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License.

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Fiat Lingua is produced and maintained by the Language Creation Society (LCS). For more information
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A Grammar of
Hiuʦɑθ

Jessie Sams

How astonishing it is that language can almost mean,
and frightening that it does not quite….

from “The Forgotten Dialect of the Heart”
by Jack Gilbert

Table of Contents

Grammar
Chapter 1: Introduction to Hiuʦɑθ
Chapter 2: Sounds
Chapter 3: Orthography
Chapter 4: Nouns and Pronouns
Chapter 5: Verbs
Chapter 6: Adjectives and Adverbs
Chapter 7: Negation and Clauses
Chapter 8: Semantic Categories
Chapter 9: Discourse Structure

Appendices
Appendix I: Guide to IPA
Appendix II: Morpheme analysis of Hiuʦɑθ story
Appendix III: Grammar cheat sheets

Dictionaries
English-Hiuʦɑθ Dictionary
Hiuʦɑθ-English Dictionary

5
12
18
23
37
53
65
77
91

98
99
103

108
148

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

Chapter 1
Introduction to Hiuʦɑθ

Hiuʦɑθ is an invented language that appears in a series of novels writ-
ten for young adults. The goal of this grammar is to investigate not only the
language itself but also the speakers of Hiuʦɑθ, integrating the language
with the speakers’ culture. As an invented language, there are only fictional
speakers of Hiuʦɑθ; however, throughout the grammar, the language will
be explored as if it and its speakers actually exist in order to bring the
readers into the fictional world of the language. Throughout the grammar,
when words in Hiuʦɑθ are written, they be written with a spelling based on
the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) for the readers’ convenience (a
guide to pronouncing IPA is in Appendix I).
This introductory chapter first focuses on the speakers of Hiuʦɑθ (Sec-
tion 1.1) before outlining key characteristics of the language and providing
the overall organization of the grammar (Section 1.2). The information on
the grammar is meant to provide readers with a broad understanding of
how Hiuʦɑθ is classified as a language in comparison with other world
languages; therefore, it will cover such features as lexicon and language
family, morphological type of language, and syntactic structure.

1.1 Speakers
Hiuʦɑθ is a language spoken by the Xiɸɑθeho (‘Gifteds’), a race of
women who, though they look human in appearance, have special abilities
(or Gifts). There are 12 families of Xiɸɑθeho, and each family has a desig-
nated xiɸɑθ (‘Gift’), such as the xiɸɑθ of Finding (the ability to find any-
thing, no matter how hidden) or of Making (the ability to make any object
from an existing, but different one). Each family has four generations at all
times, so the number of Xiɸɑθeho always remains 48. By most standards,
having only 48 speakers would classify Hiuʦɑθ as an endangered language;
however, the population has held steady at 48 speakers for well over a
millinium without the language losing its linguistic status, despite the fact
that the Xiɸɑθeho do not willingly allow their language to be shared with
human speakers (which makes collecting data for written grammars quite
difficult). In the unlikely event that the number of speakers should dwindle,
Hiuʦɑθ could quickly become a dead language.

JESSIE SAMS6

The Xiɸɑθeho—along with their language—first appeared in the sev-
enth century in Europe and parts of northern Africa, where they remained
until the 16th century. During those 900 years, they were a nomadic tribe
that traveled individually or, in some cases, in pairs or small groups. They
used their Gifts to help the humans they came in contact with as they jour-
neyed. All Xiɸɑθeho are able to speak and understand human languages
but use only Hiuʦɑθ to communicate with one another. Any fluctuations in
their language occurred during that time when they borrowed or calqued
terms from the continental languages to fill any lexical gaps; although, the
amount of borrowing and calquing remained rather limited even during that
period of fluctuation. The languages with the biggest effect on Hiuʦɑθ are
the ancient languages of Europe—primarily Latin and ancient Greek.
After near persecution in the 16th century when women were be-
ing burned for witchcraft and religious persecution was at its height, the
Xiɸɑθeho began questioning their purpose of helping humanity and banded
together to flee Europe for the isolation of the American “New World”
continent, where they once again became nomadic and mingled with the
indigenous people of the land for nearly 100 years. However, with the in-
flux of European settlers, they feared that another time of persecution was
near. After witnessing the Salem witch trials in the late 17th century, they
shunned humans and isolated themselves in a settlement they simply called
‘ekonilɑ’ (‘the colony’). They currently live—and have lived for over 300
years—in a rural (and otherwise uninhabited) area of the Ozarks in Mis-
souri. The approximate location of ekonilɑ is marked on the map below:

Figure 1. Location of ekonilɑ on Google map: 37.242765,-91.225233

Figure 1 shows the isolation of ekonilɑ—all roads end before the outer
boundaries. No human knows exactly how large ekonilɑ is, nor has any

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ
7

human been inside its boundaries. Based on information from a Xiɸɑθe
informant, though, ekonilɑ has at least 13 structures: 12 buildings house
the different families, and one building is their Assembly Hall (functioning
as both a temple and courthouse for the Xiɸɑθeho). Unpaved paths run be-
tween the buildings, and the outer area of ekonilɑ is wild forest land. While
the Xiɸaθeho can travel outside their confines, their borders are guarded
against intruders (other than animals, which can come and go freely).
The Xiɸɑθeho typically resist change, which is evident in their lan-
guage—a language with little to no irregularities, even in the morphology
of common nouns and verbs. Their resistance to change is also reflected in
borrowing: If a word or term is borrowed from another language, it often
takes years (or, in some cases, centuries) for the word to be entrenched
enough in Hiuʦɑθ to be considered a part of the language. If a lexical gap
exists, the Xiɸɑθeho are more likely to create an entirely new word in their
own language than they are to borrow one.
One change that occurred internally is a change in the name of their
language. When they isolated themselves in ekonila, they changed their
language name to Hiuʦeʦɑθeiθo (or ‘Hiuʦɑθ’), which literally means ‘su-
perior language.’ While the language itself is not linguistically superior to
any other language, its name portrays the attitude of the Xiɸɑθeho toward
other languages or, more specifically, toward speakers of other languages.
The Xiɸɑθeho view humans as inferior and, therefore, are often disdainful
when referring to humans or the things they hold important, and they resist
filling any lexical gaps caused by human invention over the past 300 years
(e.g., they have no specific word for car or computer).

1.2 Language

In its recognizable roots, Hiuʦɑθ is primarily Indo-European with cog-
nates for many common terms, such as those in the following table. In
Table 1 below, the Greek column is Ancient Greek, and the dashes repre-
sent entries that are either not available or are not cognates.

JESSIE SAMS
8

IE Root Sanskrit Greek

Latin

German Russian Hiuʦɑθ English

mater-

matar

mētēr

māter

Mutter

mat’

mɑθɑne mother

pəter-

pitar

patēr

swesor-

svasar

—

pater

soror

Vater

pápa

pɑθɑne

father

Schwester

sestrá

ʃuθɑno

sister

bhrāter-

bhratar —

frater

Bruder

brat

fɑθɑno

brother

nekʷ-t- —

ster-

mūs-

trei-

—

tri

nyx

aster

—

treis

nox

stella

mus

trēs

Nacht

noch

nuθne

night

Stern

Maus

drei

—

myš’

tri

ɑʦeli

muʃe

θele

star

mouse

three

Table 1. Indo-European cognates

A common pattern, which is seen in Table 1, is that when the IE root has
a [t], Hiuʦɑθ uses a [θ]; for example, the ‘mater-’ from IE is ‘mɑθɑne’ in
Hiuʦɑθ. Another common pattern is that the [s] in an IE root is an [ʃ] in
Hiuʦɑθ; an example is that the IE root ‘mūs-’ becomes the Hiuʦɑθ ‘muʃe’.
The exception listed in Table 1 to both of those generalizations is the IE
root ‘ster-’, which is ‘ɑʦeli’ in Hiuʦɑθ—a form of metathesis (reversing
the [s] and [t] sounds). Because Hiuʦɑθ does not have an [r] in its phone-
mic inventory, anytime an [r] carries through to Hiuʦɑθ, it is realized as an
[l]; an example is the IE root ‘trei-’ becoming the Hiuʦɑθ ‘θele’. Based on
cognates in the lexicon—like those in Table 1—Hiuʦɑθ is classified as an
Indo-European language. Beyond its lexicon, though, Hiuʦɑθ is an outlier
of Indo-European languages with features reminiscent of languages around
the world.

In inflecting words, Hiuʦɑθ is primarily an agglutinating language—it
has a variety of prefixes and suffixes that attach to a base with clear bound-
aries. For example, in (1) below, the word ‘itɑɑlihomɑ’ is broken down into
its individual morphemes:

(1) i-tɑɑli-ho-mɑ
def-animal-pl-acc

‘the animals’

The base for (1) is ‘tɑɑli’ (‘animal’); the prefix ‘i-’ is a definite marker that
attaches directly to the base. Furthermore, the plural suffix ‘-ho’ is distinct

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

from the accusative suffix ‘-mɑ’. As an agglutinating language, the major-
ity of the prefixes and suffixes have a single meaning or grammatical func-
tion, like those in (1). While Hiuʦɑθ is primarily agglutinating, it has some
fusional characteristics, especially in the verbal inflections:

(2) ʦɑθe-keme

say-1p,incl,past
‘we said’

In the example in (2), the suffix ‘-keme’ indicates multiple grammatical
features: person, number, inclusiveness, and tense. In this case, the suf-
fix is first-person, plural, inclusive, and past tense. Unlike most fusional
languages, though, the suffix is still easily separable from its base, ‘ʦɑθe’
(‘say’). Hiuʦɑθ also shares some characteristics with analytic languages;
for instance, Hiuʦɑθ has prepositions:

(3) mexo e-konilɑ-hɑθ

around def-colony-loc
‘around the Colony’

Example (3) demonstrates that Hiuʦɑθ has function words (like preposi-
tions) that stand alone. Even with these features, though, Hiuʦɑθ is still
primarily an agglutinating language.

In general, the expected (i.e., ‘unmarked’) sentence structure is VSO,
which is not entirely uncommon in world languages but is less common
than SVO or SOV word orders. Examples of the typical word order are
below:

(4) a.

ɑlikɑθito iuʦekɑ
V S
‘the bird is flying’
ʃinɑkɑ elelune menikoʃiɑmɑ
V S
‘the girl saw a cat’

If a sentence only has a subject and a verb, as in (4a), the verb will gener-
ally precede the subject. If a sentence has a subject, object, and verb, as

JESSIE SAMS

in (4b), the typical order is VSO. If a sentence has more constituents than
VSO, the typical sentence structure is the following:

(Neg) (Aux) V S O1 O2 ADJUNCT

An example of a sentence with more constituents is in (5):

(5) ŋɑi mifne ɲuekɑ emɑθɑne ɑsuneomɑ ehɑloneɸis ʦuʃo θexohɑθ
neg aux V S O1

O2 adjunct

‘No, the mother should not give her daughter the stone in front of

me’

The sentence in (5) demonstrates the typical order for sentences with ne-
gation, an auxiliary, two objects, and an adjunct. Because the language
inflects nouns, and to some extent adjectives, in the sentence to show their
grammatical roles (which will be further discussed in a later chapter), the
word order can vary from the typical one without resulting in any major
misunderstandings. Therefore, the sentence in (5) could be reworded like
the following:

(6) ʦuʃo θexohɑθ ɑsuneomɑ ŋɑi mifne ɲuekɑ emɑθɑne ehɑloneɸis

adjunct
‘No, the mother should not give her daughter the stone in front of

O1 neg aux V

me’

Even with the consituents in a different order, the overall meaning of the
setnence does not change. However, with a different word order, the em-
phasis shifts—the sentence in (6) might be better translated into English as
‘In front of me, the stone the mother should not give to her daughter.’ The
wording sounds awkward in English, but it reflects the fact that in Hiuʦɑθ
any constituent placed at the beginning of the sentence (that would not
typically appear there) is brought into focus. Emphasis—focus or topical-
ization—is the primary reason sentences appear in a different word order.
However, a different word order could also reflect strong emotion.

1.3 Organization of the grammar
The following grammar of Hiuʦɑθ is organized into eight chapters,
each one exploring a different feature of the language and building on the
general information provided above.

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

Chapter 2 focuses on the sounds of Hiuʦɑθ, examining both the pho-
nemes and the phonological processes present in the language. Chapter 3
builds on the sounds by providing the native writing system of Hiuʦɑθ, as
well as alternate spelling systems for writing Hiuʦɑθ words
Chapter 4 begins the investigation of the morpho-syntax of Hiuʦɑθ by
describing the noun and pronoun usage in the language. Chapter 5 builds
on the morpho-syntax by describing verb usage, and Chapter 6 provides
information on adjectives and adverbs. Chapter 7 finishes the section on
morhpo-syntax with descriptions of the use of negatives in utterances and
complex clauses, including subordinate clauses, questions, and reported
speech.
Chapter 8 focuses on the semantic categories within the Hiuʦɑθ lexi-
con, tying in key information about the Xiɸɑθe culture. Chapter 9, then,
builds on that by providing information about discourse and narrative struc-
ture in Hiuʦɑθ.
After the written grammar, two dictionaries are provided: an English-
Hiuʦɑθ Dictionary and a Hiuʦɑθ-English Dictionary.

JESSIE SAMS12

Chapter 2
Sounds of Hiuʦɑθ

In order to cover the full range of sounds in Hiuʦɑθ, this chapter has
three sections: phonemic inventories, syllabic concerns, and phonological
processes.

2.1 Phonemic inventories
Hiuʦɑθ was originally called the “whispered language” (Huɸelihʦɑθeiθo,
or Huɸeʦɑθ for short) because it was only spoken in wisps in passing when
the Xiɸɑθeho crossed paths while living among humans; the language was
spoken primarily in whispers to keep humans from deciphering the lan-
guage through any sort of frequent exposure. Because it was primarily
whispered, there are no voiced/voiceless distinctions (as they are all lost
when whispered) in any of the sounds. In other words, while there are
voiced phonemes (e.g., [m] or [e]), there are no voiceless counterparts to
those phonemes.
The consonants in the phonemic inventory are largely voiceless to pro-
vide maximal distinctions between consonants and vowels when the lan-
guage is spoken aloud; furthermore, there are more fricatives than any
other type of consonant, which gives the language a whispered (or hissing)
feel. Table 2 below provides the phonemic inventory of Hiuʦɑθ consonants
(Table 2 is an IPA chart; refer to Appendix I for further tips on pronounc-
ing IPA):

Bilabial Labio-
dental

Dental Alveolar Post-

Palatal Velar Glottal

alveolar

Plosive

Nasal

Fricative

Affricate

Lat. app.

Table 2. Phonemic consonants of Hiuʦɑθ

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ
13

Many of the consonants in Table 2 are familiar to English speakers; how-
ever, some of the consonants are unfamiliar or pronounced differently than
those in English:

(a) All three voiceless plosives (or stops) are unaspirated (e.g., [p] is

pronounced as the initial [p] in Spanish perro).

(b) The palatal nasal [ɲ] is pronounced like the medial sounds in Span-
ish piña, and the velar nasal [ŋ] is pronounced like the final sound in
English sing.

(c) The two fricatives not found in English are the voiceless bilabial fric-
ative [ɸ] and the voiceless velar fricative [x]; the [x] is pronounced
like the final sound of German ach.

(d) The voiceless glottal fricative [h] is fully pronounced as a glottal
fricative, not as a voiceless vowel counterpart as it is in English, and
when [h] appears at the end of a syllable, it is still fully pronounced.
(e) The voiceless alveolar affricate [ʦ] is not found in English but is
easily produceable by most English speakers (as it is like the end of
common words like cats [kæts]); it helps make Hiuʦɑθ feel exotic
that the [ʦ] appears in the onset of syllables, something that would
not naturally occur in English.

The IPA symbols for the consonants (found in Table 2) are used throughout
this grammar to spell out Hiuʦɑθ words.
Hiuʦɑθ is a typical language in that it has the three voiceless stops [p],
[t], and [k] that are found most frequently in languages, and it has the most
sounds produced in the alveolar region than any other, which is a typical
pattern for languages. Furthermore, the most frequent three nasals are all
present ([n], [m], and [ŋ]) along with the less frequent [ɲ]. The language is
a bit atypical in that it has the dental fricative [θ], which is not a common
world sound, and it has no voicing distinctions. According to Maddieson,
Hiuʦɑθ has a moderately small consonant inventory with 16 consonants,
where the typical inventory is 19-25. Having a moderately small consonant
inventory is one way that Hiuʦɑθ differs from other Indo-European lan-
guages, as the highest concentrations of languages with moderately small
consonant inventories are “in the Pacific region (including New Guinea),
in South America and in the eastern part of North America” (Maddieson,
Chapter 1).
Table 3 provides the vowels in the phonemic inventory of Hiuʦɑθ:

JESSIE SAMS14

Front

Back

Close-mid

Open

Table 3. Phonemic vowels of Hiuʦɑθ

The vowels in Table 3 are the classic five vowels that often show up in
natural languages (and invented languages). While most English speakers
will produce the close-mid tense vowels [e] and [o] as diphthongs, they
are monophthongs in Hiuʦɑθ. The vowels are balanced and are typical for
world languages: According to the Maddieson, the average vowel inven-
tory is 5-6 vowels, and languages with average-sized vowel inventories
appear throughout the world (Chapter 2).
The phonemic inventory, when considered together, falls into the aver-
age size for phonemic inventories (20-37 phonemes) with 21 phonemes. Its
consonant-vowel ratio (3.2) is average when compared across world lan-
guages (Maddieson states that the average ratio is between 2.75 and 4.5);
several other Indo-European languages share this average ratio, including
Spanish, Modern Greek, and Romanian (Maddieson, Chapter 3).

2.2 Syllabic concerns
The syllable structure of Hiuʦɑθ is theoretically (C)V(C); however, due
to phonological constraints, it is really a CV(C) language because any vow-
el without a C onset is automatically preceded by a glottal stop. While the
onset can be any consonantal sound, the coda can only be a fricative, and
the nucleus can only be a vowel (i.e., Hiuʦɑθ has no syllabic consonants).
There are no consonant clusters in the language, so when a syllable is CVC,
the coda is always produced as its own sound (i.e., the coda C never blends
with the onset C of the next syllable). Thus, /mostɑ/ is pronounced [mɔs-tɑ]
and not [mɔ-stɑ], as many English speakers would typically do, or [mɔst-ɑ].
(The hyphen in the pronunciation is only used to show where the syllable
boundary occurs for ease of reference.) Furthermore, when the coda C is
the same as the onset C of the following syllable, the two consonants are
still fully produced; therefore, /mosse/ is pronounced [mɔs-se] (with an
elongated, or geminated, consonant) and not [mɔse].

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ15

Accent in Hiuʦɑθ is realized with a pitch accent on the initial syllable:
If the word is polysyllabic, the pitch is a rising one; if the word is monosyl-
labic, the pitch is a falling one. For instance, the word [hɑlɑθɑ] has a rising
pitch on the first syllable [hɑ] while the word [se] has a falling pitch on
its only syllable. All other syllables are produced with a neutral pitch. The
pitch accent remains on the initial syllable of the root word so that even if
a prefix is added, the accent remains on the same syllable; thus, when the
verb [hɑlɑθɑ] (‘need’) becomes part of an interrogative construction and re-
ceives the prefix [ʦi-] to become [ʦihɑlɑθɑ], the rising pitch accent remains
on the [hɑ]. For words that have four or more syllables, a secondary pitch
accent with a rising pitch that is not quite as high as the primary accent is
placed on the fourth syllable (so that no more than two unaccented syllables
occur in a row); proper compounds in Hiuʦɑθ ignore word boundaries and
place the secondary pitch accent on the syllable it typically falls on, regard-
less of where the second word begins. For example, [ʔifepɑʔiθo] ‘belief’
receives the following pitch accents: [ʔí fe pɑ ʔi ̋ θo], where the initial syl-
lable [ʔi] receives the primary accent ( ́) and the fourth syllable [ʔi] receives
the secondary accent ( ̋). The compound [ʔifepɑʔiθoloɸɔs] ‘religion’ (liter-
ally ‘belief system’) receives the accents on those same syllables with the
addition of a falling accent on the final syllable: [ʔí fe pɑ ʔi ̋ θo lo ɸɔ̀s].
Having the initial syllable receive the stress is common to Indo-European
languages: Goedemans and van der Hulst state that many European systems
have initial stress (Chapter 14).

2.3 Phonological processes
As previously stated, the theoretical V syllable structure in Hiuʦɑθ is
never pronounced as such because of an obligatory glottal stop insertion.

glottal stop insertion: When a vowel occurs without a consonant onset
in its syllable, a glottal stop is inserted as the onset.

For instance, consider the following examples:

(7) a. fɑhɑle → [fɑhɑle]
b. ɑŋelɑ → [ʔɑŋelɑ]
c. eolɑ → [ʔeʔolɑ]

‘different’
‘to cook’
‘empty’

In all three examples, any vowel with a specified syllable onset is produced
as is; however, in examples (7b) and (7c), a glottal stop is inserted in front

JESSIE SAMS

of the vowels that have no specified onset, which is why the initial [ɑ] of
‘ɑŋelɑ’ is pronounced [ʔɑ] in example (7b) and why the [eo] of example
(7c) is pronounced [ʔeʔo]. Thus, any V syllable automatically becomes a
CV syllable.
Another phonological process deals with vowels in closed syllables
(those with a coda); the vowels in closed syllables become lax.

vowel laxation: Any vowel in a closed syllable becomes a lax vowel.

The following five examples demonstrate the obligatory vowel laxation in
each of the vowels:

(8) a. hemiθ → [hemɪθ]
b. leθlo → [lɛθlo]
c. uʃte → [ʔʊʃte]
d. meoʃ → [meʔɔʃ]
e. ʦɑθmɑ → [ʦɑθmɑ]

‘blood’
‘baby’
‘rotten’
‘to sit’
‘word’

Examples in (8) show the four tense vowels becoming lax when the syl-
lable structure is CVC: the close front tense vowel [i] becomes the lax [ɪ]
in example (8a), the close-mid back tense vowel [o] becomes the lax [ɔ] in
example (8b), and so on. Because the open back vowel [ɑ] is already lax, it
undergoes no outward change, which can be seen in example (8e).
Another phonological process in Hiuʦɑθ is a type of assimilation called
palatalization, which is an optional process:

[x] palatalization: When the voiceless velar fricative [x] is followed
by the close front vowel [i], the [x] is optionally palatalized to become
the voiceless palatal fricative [ç].

The following two examples demonstrate [x] palatalization:

(9) a. ɲixes → [ɲixɛs]

b. xilɑ → [xilɑ]/[çilɑ]

‘breakfast’
‘to laugh’

In (9a), the [x] is produced as a velar fricative because the [i] does not fol-
low it; however, in (9b), the verb ‘to laugh’ can be pronounced either with
the [x] or with the [ç].

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

If a suffix is added onto a morpheme that exactly reduplicates the last
syllable of the root, the final syllable of the root undergoes a vowel change.

dissimilation: When a suffix causes a reduplicated syllable, the vowel
of the first syllable shifts.

For any vowel besides [ɑ], the shift is to [ɑ]; if the vowel is [ɑ], it shifts to
[e]. For example:

(10)

(11)

a. ʦɑθe
b. -θe
c. ʦɑθɑθe
a. iʦimɑ
b. -mɑ
c. iʦimemɑ ‘idea-acc’

‘speak’
‘one who…’
‘speaker’
‘idea’
acc

‘Speaker’ should be ‘ʦɑθeθe’; however, due to the dissimilation rule, it be-
comes ‘ʦɑθɑθe’, as seen in (10). Also, the accusative form of ‘idea’ should
be ‘iʦimɑmɑ’; example (11) demonstrates, though, that it is ‘iʦimemɑ’.
When considering these phonological processes, the following phones
would need to be added to the preceding phonemic inventories to create
phonetic inventories: the voiceless glottal stop [ʔ], voiceless palatal frica-
tive [ç], and lax vowels [ɪ], [ɛ], [ʊ], and [ɔ]. So while Hiuʦɑθ has 21 pho-
nemes, it has 27 phones. The only phonological process that changes the
spelling of the word is the dissimilation of final syllables (e.g., ‘speaker’ is
spelled ‘ʦɑθɑθe’, not *‘ʦɑθeθe’); all other types of phonological processes
are not reflected in the spelling of the word. As such, the IPA representa-
tions do not reflect those process either. Therefore, even though ‘blood’ has
the spelling ‘hemiθ’, it is pronounced [hemɪθ]. This spelling convention
follows the orthography (as outlined in chapter 3) and is the reason Chapter
1 states that the spelling throughout this grammar is “based on IPA” and
not an actual IPA representation. The spelling convention could also be
described as a phonemic one (as opposed to a phonetic one).

JESSIE SAMS

Chapter 3
Orthography

The Xiɸɑθeho do not generally write their language—written language
provides lasting records of the language that could be intercepted by hu-
mans, and, as stated in Chapter 2, the Xiɸɑθeho guard their language from
humans. However, they still have a writing sytem for their language be-
cause they are able to read each other’s thoughts (as written ribbons of
thought that they see appear above the thinker’s head). As such, the writing
system is meant to quite literally represent ribbons—the letters look like
what scraps of ribbons might do if they fell onto the floor. While it is par-
tially (and very loosely) based on the Greek alphabet, the system is actually
an abjad (or a ‘consonant alphabet’) and is written horizontally from left
to right (like English). Figure 1 below presents the Hiuʦɑθ abjad, with the
names of the letters (which are heavily influenced by Ancient Greek), in the
order used to organize Hiuʦɑθ dictionaries:

f h

k l

[ɑ]

[ʔɑ]
ɑlef

[ʔe]
etɑ

[e]

[f]
fe

[h]
hɑ

[ʔi]
iotɑ

[i]

[k]
kɑpɑ

[l]
lɑmɑ

s c

[m]
mu

[n]
nu

[ɲ]
eɲɑ

[ŋ]
eŋɑ

[o]

[ʔo]
omekɑ

[p]
pe

[ɸ]
ɸi

[s]
[ʃ]
simɑ eʃɑ

z U

x d

[t]
tɑ

[ʦ]
oʦe

[ʔu]
uselo

[u]

[x]
xi

[θ]
θetɑ

Figure 2. Abjad of Hiuʦɑθ

While the order presented in Figure 2 represents the organization of Hiuʦɑθ
dictionaries, the Xiɸɑθeho do not have a set order for their abjad. Because
the Xiɸɑθeho naturally pick up the ability to produce and comprehend the
ribbons of thought much like they do spoken language, they do not have
to learn an alphabet or recite letters. The names of the letters are used to

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

refer to the letters themselves but are not often used in education or even
conversation.
As seen in Figure 2, the vowels have two different orthographical rep-
resentations: The first, their “true” form, is only used when the syllable has
no onset (i.e., when the glottal stop is inserted); the second, their “reduced”
form or diacritic form, is only used when the syllable is CV. For example,
the following are words in Hiuʦɑθ:

(12)

‘head’
‘to help’

a. kɑθɑ kada
b. ɑθu Adu
c. meoʃ meOc ‘to sit’
d. lɑiθe laIde
‘wide’
e. eliɑ EliA ‘space’

The examples in (12) demonstrate the differences in vowel representation.
Because all “true” forms of the vowels are pronounced with a glottal stop
in front of the vowel sound (e.g., A [ʔɑ] but a [ɑ]), the glyphs representing
those “true” vowels are actually syllabic representations. The “reduced”
or diacritic forms are called ‘tiɑkɑleθo’ forms in Hiuʦɑθ. To refer to a
particular tiɑkɑleθo, the letter represented by the diacritic is compounded
with ‘tiɑkɑleθo’; for instance, < a > is called ‘ɑleftiɑkɑleθo’, and < u > is
called ‘uselotiɑkɑleθo’. Examples (12b-e) demonstrate that though the glot-
tal stop is pronounced, it does not appear in the Hiuʦɑθ written form; due
to its absence in Hiuʦɑθ, spelling conventions based on IPA also omit the
glottal stop (i.e., ‘wide’ is written as ‘lɑiθe’, not ‘lɑʔiθe’). Because there are
no diphthongs in Hiuʦɑθ, the omission of the glottal stop in written form
rarely causes ambiguities. An example where it does cause an ambiguity
is in (13):

(13) meoʃiθo

‘sitting’ (n.)

The syllables of (13) are as follows: [me-ʔɔʃ-ʔi-θo]. The spelling in (13),
though, could lead to the following misparsing: [me-ʔo-ʃi-θo]. Speakers
familiar with the language would not have this problem, as the ‘-iθo’ suf-
fix is a common suffix that turns a verb into a noun. Because morpheme
boundaries are represented in the majority of the examples provided in this
grammar, even beginning speakers will be able to differentiate the syllable
breaks; the example in (13) can be represented as ‘meoʃ-iθo’, which indi-
cates that the [i] from ‘-iθo’ begins a new syllable and, thus, is pronounced

JESSIE SAMS

with a glottal stop preceding it.
The glyphs of written Hiuʦɑθ can be organized to show that sounds
with similar manners have similar features; thus, the abjad could be broken
down into manners of production, as in Table 4 below.

Manner

stop

nasal

Representation
p t k

m n j g

Feature

straight line with attached curved line

line that changes vertical direction

fricative/affricate

b f d s c x h z

curved line with a single small loop

liquid

vowel

A E I O U

a large loop

curved line with a “near” loop

Table 4. Glyphs by manner

The first column in Table 4 breaks the sounds of Hiuʦɑθ into five man-
ners; the single affricate [ʦ] is considered a part of the fricatives for this
table. The second column provides the written glyphs that correspond to the
manners listed in the first column, and then the third column provides the
feature the glyphs share. If new sounds were introduced to the language,
they would most likely follow these feature guidelines. For instance, if the
language were to create letters to correspond to the lax vowels, they would
most likely be curved lines with near loops.
The only phonetic consonant that has its own written representation is
the voiceless glottal stop [ʔ], which is represented by ‘utɑ’ < q >. The utɑ
does not appear in any orthographic representations of Hiuʦɑθ, so it does
not appear even when a word has a glottal stop (as indicated by examples
such as those shown above). The written representation of utɑ exists solely
as a way to speak about the sound that occurs so frequently in the Hiuʦɑθ
language yet does not appear in written form.

In written Hiuʦɑθ, the boundaries between words are indicated by
spaces. The end of a sentence is marked by an ‘ɑpole’ < . >, which
should not be confused with a period—the ɑpole is used to show the end of
any sentence, whether it is a statement, question, or exclamation. There is
also an ‘imute’ < : >, which indicates mid-punctuation of a sentence and
is generally represented in English as either a comma or colon. No strict
punctuation “rules” exist for Hiuʦɑθ, and so these two punctuation marks
can be liberally applied and used in a variety of situations. The best transla-

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ
21

tions for the ɑpole and imute are ‘final punctuation’ and ‘middle punctua-
tion’, respectively: the ɑpole indicates the current sentence is finished while
an imute indicates that the sentence will continue.
The written numbers in Hiuʦɑθ are borrowed from the Arabic numer-
als. Originally, Hiuʦɑθ had no written form for numerals, and so any writ-
ten representation was either a system of slashes (much like keeping score,
where the fifth slash crosses through the first four slashes) or a written
form of the name of the number. Neither forms are efficient for dealing
with larger numbers, though, and the Xiɸɑθeho adopted the Arabic numeral
system well over a millineum ago. The numbers are presented in Figure 3
below:

neɑɸθe mone

ʃolu

θele

ɸiɸlu

sixɑ

ɑhne
Figure 3. Numbers in Hiuʦɑθ

sife

ɸɑle

neni

Because of their strong similarity to other Arabic numeral systems (such
as the one used in English), these numbers are recognizable by speakers of
many languages.
All words but one in the Hiuʦɑθ language are written according to their
sounds (i.e., written using the writing system presented above). The excep-
tion is the word ‘ximɑlɑ’, which most closely translates as ‘the mark of the
Xiɸɑθe’. When ximɑlɑ is represented in writing, it looks like the symbol in
(14a) and is never written out, as in (14b):

(14)

a. y

*ximala

The asterisk next to the form in (14b) indicates that the written form is
never used for the word ‘ximɑlɑ’.
While this grammar uses a spelling system based on IPA that most
closely matches the Hiuʦɑθ writing system, Hiuʦɑθ also has a Roman-
ized form of spelling, used in works for people unfamiliar with IPA. The
Romanization differs from the IPA representation slightly; Table 5 below
provides the Hiuʦɑθ, IPA, and Romanized equivalents for those sounds
represented differently in the IPA and Romanized conventions:

JESSIE SAMS

Hiuʦɑθ
A

IPA

Romanization

ch or x

Table 5. Romanization versus IPA

The sounds not present in Table 5 are represented the same in IPA and
Romanized conventions. For example, hiUzad in IPA conventions is repre-
sented as ‘Hiuʦɑθ’ but is represented as ‘Hiutsath’ in Romanized conven-
tions. The primary difference is that the Romanized conventions represent
some of the single sounds as a combination of two letters. The majority of
those two-letter combinations do not cause any misunderstandings; the only
exception is the ‘sh’ representation of the [ʃ] sound. For example, the word
‘lɑʃɑ’ (‘do’) is represented as ‘lasha’ in Romanized conventions. However,
in Hiuʦɑθ, ‘lasha’ could indicate [lɑʃɑ] (‘do’) or [lɑshɑ] (‘lick’).
Of the three methods used to represent Hiuʦɑθ in written form, the
Hiuʦɑθ abjad is the most reliable, as it most directly reflects the pronuncia-
tion. If the Hiuʦɑθ abjad is not used, the IPA conventions for spelling are
the second best at reflecting the actual pronunciation. However, if a speaker
is unfamiliar with both conventions, the Romanized form is a good indica-
tor of how the majority of the words will be pronounced.

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ23

Chapter 4
Nouns and Pronouns

Hiuʦɑθ nouns can be modified with both inflectional and derivational
affixes. Nouns inflect for number, case, and determinacy, which are dis-
cussed in the first three subsections. Nominal derivations are discussed in
the fourth subsection, and pronouns, which also inflect for case, are dis-
cussed in the final subsection.

4.1 Number
Nouns in Hiuʦɑθ have two possible numbers: singular and plural. Sin-
gular is the unmarked form (i.e., a bare noun indicates it is singular) while
plurality is marked with the suffix ‘-(h)o’.

(15)

a. leθlo
b. leθloho

‘baby’
‘babies’

The plural suffix is generally fully pronounced as ‘-ho’, as in (15); how-
ever, the [h] can be optionally deleted in the plural suffix. That occurs
most often when the noun ends in a consonant; when the ‘-o’ is added, the
syllable breaks change (this is the only instance when the syllables blend).

(16)

a. sɑox
b. sɑoxho
c. sɑoxo

‘leg’
‘legs’
‘legs’

In example (16a), the noun ‘sɑox’ ends in a fricative; the plural ‘-ho’ can
be fully pronounced, as in (16b), or it can delete the [h], as in (16c). When
the [h] is deleted, the syllables shift so that the final fricative is a part of
the plural affix:

(17)

sɑ-o-xo

This syllable break that is demonstrated in (17) only occurs with the ‘-o’
plural. When the fricative is taken from the previous syllable, the vowel
goes back to its tense pronunciation (i.e., the laxing process is undone

JESSIE SAMS

because the syllable is now an open one). Therefore, (17) is pronounced
[sɑoxo] and not [sɑɔxo].

4.2 Case
Hiuʦɑθ is an active-stative language and has nine cases, all of which
are provided in Table 6 below. Widely used terms for case will be used to
describe the case system, along with full descriptions of how those cases
are applied in the language.

nominative (NOM) —

accusative (ACC)

genitive (GEN)

dative (DAT)

locative (LOC)

-mɑ

-su

-ɸis

-hɑθ

comitative (COM)

-xɑ

instrumental (INST)

-xɑɸ

ablative (ABL)

vocative (VOC)

-lof

-i

Table 6. Nominal cases

As can be seen in Table 6, the unmarked case is the nominative; if a bare
noun occurs, it is not only singular but also in the nominative case. All
other cases are marked with agglutinating suffixes, with the case marking
occurring after plurality:

(18)

a. loteʃi-lof
road-abl
b. loteʃi-ho-lof
road-pl-abl

Example (18) demonstrates the order of bound morphemes: NOUN-plural-
ity-case.
As an active-stative language, the subject of a transitive verb is in the
nominative case, and the subject of an intransitive verb is either nominative

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

or accusative, depending on the verb. The nominative case is perhaps bet-
ter termed the “agentive” and “copulative” case, as it marks subjects that
either think/do something or are being described as something, as in the
following examples:

(19)

a. felɑ-to

e-leθelune

ɑ-meŋo-mɑ

hit-3s,pres def-child,nom def-chair-acc
‘The child is hitting the chair’

b. lusi-to

e-leθelune

dance-3s,pres def-child,nom
‘The child is dancing’

c. mɑθo-to

e-leθelune

iɸune-teɸ

be-3s,pres def-child,nom good-pred
‘The child is good’

In the examples in (19), ‘eleθelune’ (‘the child’) is the subject of the verb;
all instances are marked as the nominative case.
The accusative case is used to mark objects of transitive verbs, subjects
of some intransitive verbs, and grammatical subjects of passive verbs; it
could perhaps be better termed the “patientive” case because it typically
marks entities that are undergoing some change, as in the examples below:

(20)

a. felɑ-to

e-leθelune-mɑ
hit-3s,pres def-child-acc
‘She is hitting the child’

b. oɲeθ-to

e-leθelune-mɑ
fall-3s,pres def-child-acc
‘The child is falling’

c. pe-felɑ-to

e-leθelune-mɑ
pass-hit-3s,pres def-child-acc
‘The child is being hit’

In example (20a), ‘eleθelune’ is the object of the transitive verb ‘felɑ’ and
so carries the accusative suffix, ‘-mɑ’. In (20b), ‘eleθelune’ is the subject
of an intransitive verb; however, the subject is not an agentive subject (the
falling is happening to the child rather than the child doing the falling out
of volition). Then, in (20c), it is the grammatical subject of a passive verb.
Furthermore, the accusative case is used with objects of prepositions
that mark movement; generally, that movement is toward something, but

JESSIE SAMS

other times, it simply denotes movement regardless of the goal.

(21)

a. filoθ oɲele-mɑ
to
river-acc
‘to/toward a river’

b. xiuθ oɲele-mɑ
along river-acc
‘(move) along the side of a river’

The example in (21a) provides the most prototypical usage of an accusa-
tive object with a preposition: movement toward a goal. While ‘filoθ’ can
have other meanings (e.g., ‘into’), it means ‘to/toward’ when used with an
accusative object. As (21b) demonstrates, though, the movement does not
necessarily have to be toward its goal; ‘xiuθ’ can mean ‘beside’ but with an
accusative object means ‘(to move) along the side of’.
The genitive case is primarily used to mark possession; the suffix is at-
tached to the noun indicating the possessor, as in (22):

(22)

e-tinofiθe-su

ekɑfelɑ
strength,nom def-teacher-gen
‘strength of the teacher’ / ‘the teacher’s strength’

When used alone, the genitive can be translated as ‘of NOUN’, as in (22).
Also, some verbs require their objects to be in the genitive case. The typi-
cal word order shifts when the object is genitive so that the object appears
directly after the verb.

(23)

a. ɑxisɑnɑhe-to θexo-su
awe-3s,pres 1s-gen
‘The teacher’s strength awes me’

ekɑfelɑ
strength,nom def-teacher-gen

e-tinofiθe-su

b. ɑxisɑnɑhe-to θexo-su
awe-3s,pres 1s-gen
‘She awes me’

In both examples in (23), the one being awed, ‘θexo’ (‘I’), is in the genitive
case; the genitive object, then, occurs directly after the verb instead of the
subject, as would typically be expected.
The dative case is used to mark the “recipient” (or intended recipient)
of ditransitive verbs—it marks the second object in dual object sentences;

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

it could also be translated with ‘due to’ or ‘on account of’ when it is not the
second object of a verb. Some (albeit very few) prepositions can take dative
objects.

(24)

a. ɲue-to

menɑ-etɑɸe-mɑ e-leθelune-ɸis
give-3s,pres indef-stick-acc def-child-dat
‘She is giving a stick to the child’

b. ulefɑte-to

ɑ-seɲeiθo-mɑ

e-leθelune-ɸis
listen-3s,pres def-song-acc def-child-dat
‘She is listening to the song on account of the child’ (i.e., for
the benefit of the child)

c. mexo e-leθelune-ɸis
about def-child-dat
‘concerning/about the child’

The recipient of the verb ‘ɲue’ (‘give’) in (24a) takes a dative recipient (or
second object); in this case, the child is receiving the stick and so has the
dative suffix. In (24b), though, there is no direct recipient; instead, the child
could be understood as a metaphorical recipient: the child is receiving sat-
isfaction or pleasure from the subject listening to the song. Example (24c)
demonstrates that some prepositions can take dative objects; ‘mexo’ can
be translated several ways, depending on the case of its object. In (24c), it
is translated as ‘about’ or ‘concerning’ because the object is in the dative
case.

Some verbs require dative objects, such as ‘lusiɑ’ (‘to please’):

(25)

a. lusiɑ-to

e-tinofiθe

e-hɑlosne-ɸis

please-3s,pres def-teacher,nom def-student-dat
‘The student likes the teacher’ (lit. ‘The teacher pleases the
student’)
b. xilɑ-to

e-hɑlosne-ɸis

laugh-3s,pres def-student-dat
‘She is laughing at the student’

In all cases where the verb requires a dative object, there is an implied
reading that the object is receiving something, whether it be concrete or
abstract; for instance, the student is “receiving” pleasure in (25a), and the
student is “receiving” laughter in (25b).

JESSIE SAMS

The locative is used for nouns marking the location and can often be
translated as ‘in/at NOUN’:

(26)

ɑ-hɑʃose-hɑθ

nɑɸθe-to
swim-3s,pres def-water-loc
‘She is swimming in the water’

The locative suffix on ‘hɑʃose’ indicates that the swimming takes place in
the water; no preposition is needed to show that relationship between the
verb and noun. The locative can also be used to mark the objects of some
prepositions, denoting the goal for movement:

(27) filoθ ɑ-hɑʃose-hɑθ

into def-water-loc
‘into the water’

While ‘filoθ’ was translated as ‘to/toward’ in (21a) with an accusative ob-
ject, it is translated as ‘into’ with a locative object, as in (27); the locative
indicates that the movement resulted in an ending location (in this case, the
water) while the accusative simply indicates movement toward a goal.
The comitative case denotes accompaniment and is best translated as
‘with NOUN’:

(28)

peʃne-to

e-tinofiθe-xɑ

walk-3s,pres def-teacher-com
‘She is walking with the teacher’

The comitative in (28) is distinct from the instrumental case, which can also
be translated as ‘with NOUN’:

(29)

ɑxikileʃnɑ-to ɑ-esɑ-mɑ

hɑʃose-xɑɸ
wash-3s,pres def-wall-acc water-inst
‘She is washing the wall with water’

If the comitative is used, it is understood that the noun in question was
“along for the ride” while the instrumental indicates that the noun in ques-
tion is being used to achieve some goal:

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

(30)

a. felɑ-to

ɑ-esɑ-mɑ

e-leθelune-xɑ

hit-3s,pres def-wall-acc def-child-com
‘She is hitting the wall with the child’ (they are hitting the

wall together)
b. felɑ-to

ɑ-esɑ-mɑ

e-leθelune-xɑɸ
hit-3s,pres def-wall-acc def-child-inst
‘She is hitting the wall with the child’ (she is using the child
to hit the wall)

As the examples in (30) demonstrate, using one case versus another results
in a different meaning even though both can be translated as ‘with NOUN’
in English.
The ablative case most generally marks the source. When the ablative
case is used without a preposition, it can be translated as ‘from’ or ‘by
means of’ or ‘caused by’; when it is used with a preposition, it indicates
movement away from some source.

(31)

a. peʃne-to
walk-3s,pres def-river-abl

ɑ-oɲele-lof

b. oɲeθ-to

‘She is walking from the river’
selɑ meŋo-lof
chair-abl

fall-3s,pres off
‘She is falling off (of) a chair’

In both examples in (31), the ablative most generally marks the noun indi-
cating the origin of the action; in (31a), the walking began in or at the river,
and, in (31b), the falling started on a chair. Sensory verbs can take ablative
or accusative objects, depending on the intended meaning:

(32)

a. ŋeo-to

ɑ-ɸiθe-ho-mɑ

smell-3s,pres def-flower-pl-acc
‘She smells the flowers’ (she is purposefully smelling the
flowers)
b. ŋeo-to

ɑ-ɸiθe-ho-lof

smell-3s,pres def-flower-pl-abl
‘She smells the flowers’ (the smell of flowers is in the air,
and she happens to smell them)

The difference in interpretation of sensory verbs is that with an accusative

JESSIE SAMS

object, as in (32a), the verb indicates that the subject has volition while
with an ablative object, as in (32b), the verb indicates that the sensory in-
formation is involuntarily being processed.
The vocative “case” is used to indicate the addressee(s) of an utterance.

(33)

θɑlihɑ-i

neʃi-to

Thaliha-voc go-3s,pres
‘Thaliha, she is going’

In (33), Thaliha is the addressee, not the subject of the verb. The speaker
is letting Thaliha know that someone else is going. The vocative is most
typically used with a proper name and often occurs at the beginning of the
utterance.

4.3 Determinacy
Nouns in Hiuʦɑθ are also inflected for determinacy; the determiner
used depends on two features: definite/indefinite and animacy of the noun.
Inanimate nouns are objects with no ability to move or think on their own
(e.g., stone, water). Animate nouns are then divided into two categories:
those with volition and those without. Animate nouns with volition are
humans (and Xiɸɑθeho) while animate nouns without volition are animals
and plants. Placing plants into an animate category reflects the Xiɸɑθeho
belief that plants are living beings but, like animals, have no volition.

DEF (vol.)

DEF (no vol.)

DEF (inani.)

ɑ-

IND (vol.)

(mone-)

IND (no vol.)

(meni-)

IND (inani.)

(menɑ-)

Table 7. Determiners

Table 7 provides the six determiners in Hiuʦɑθ; the indefinite determiners
are in parentheses because they are optional. While definite determiners
are required (unless the noun in question is a proper name), indefinite de-
terminers are not required. The definite determiners are most closely trans-

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

lated as ‘the’, and the indefinite determiners are most closely translated as
either ‘a/an’ or ‘any’.

(34)

a. ɑ-hɑʃose
def-water
‘the water’

b. menɑ-hɑʃose or hɑʃose

indef-water water,indef
‘any/some water’ (there is some undefined body of water)

As the examples in (34) demonstrate, Hiuʦɑθ determiners are prefixes, at-
taching directly to the noun.
Taking determinacy into consideration with the above information, the
overall structure for inflections on nouns is the following:

Det.NOUN.Pl.Case

Those three features are the inflectional possibilities for nouns; the next
subsection covers some possible derivations.

4.4 Derivations on nouns
The nominal derivations in Hiuʦɑθ are prefixes, and the most common
derivational prefixes are listed in Table 8.

PROPER

(heθ-)

DIM

pejorative

NEG

le-

ɑɸ-

ɲe-

adjectivalize

eθɑ-

Table 8. Nominal derivations

All derivational prefixes follow the determiner prefixes but precede the
noun (i.e., Det-Derivation-NOUN). When prefixes are used, the pitch ac-
cent remains on the first syllable of the base word (in this case, the noun).
The first prefix in Table 8 is an optional one that can replace the determiner
for proper names:

JESSIE SAMS

(35)

a. elenɑ
Elena
b. heθ-elenɑ

prop-Elena

Using the ‘heθ-’ prefix is like saying ‘the NAME’; it is most useful when
the name, like ‘elenɑ’ in (35) is also a common noun or verb. In Hiuʦɑθ,
‘elenɑ’ is the word meaning ‘to lead’. When it is used with ‘heθ-’, though,
the only meaning it can have is as a proper name. The prefix ‘heθ-’ can also
be used to indicate respect or to bring emphasis to the name.
The ‘le-’ diminutive means ‘little’ and can be combined with basically
any noun:

(36)

a. iŋos

‘insect’
b. le-iŋos
dim-insect

‘little insect’

For (36b), the pitch accent would fall on the [i] of ‘iŋos’. Some words have
diminutive forms as part of the basic vocabulary; for those words, the di-
minutive fuses with the base to become a new, single word.

(37)

a. θelune

‘person’
b. leθelune

‘child’ (lit. ‘little person’)

c. le-θelune
dim-person

‘little person’ (as in, a short person or otherwise small per-
son)

The accent in (37b) is on the initial [le]: ‘léθelune’. The accent on the di-
minutive shows that the word is more of a compound and that the diminu-
tive has become part of the base itself. That is distinguished, then, from the
non-compounded form, in which the accent would not fall on the ‘le-’. The
accent in (37c) is on the [θe]: ‘leθélune’. Any compounded forms could
then have the diminutive added:

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

(38)

a. le-leθelune
dim-child

‘little child’
b. *le-le-θelune
dim-dim-person

As the examples in (38) show, the compounded form can take the diminu-
tive, but the non-compounded forms can only take one diminutive, making
(38b) ungrammatical.
The pejorative ‘ɑɸ-’ can only be used with nouns that denote animate
nouns with volition; the root ‘AΦ’ literally means ‘thing’ or ‘object’, and
so using it with an animate, volitional noun indicates that the speaker thinks
the person being denoted is little more than a thing.

(39)

a. e-elenɑθe
def-leader
‘the leader’
b. e-ɑɸ-elenɑθe
def-pej-leader

‘the (disliked) leader’

The pejorative prefix, as in (39b), shows extreme dislike and has no exact
translation in English. If the diminutive and pejorative are used together,
the diminutive precedes the pejorative:

(40)

a. e-le-ɑɸ-θelune
def-dim-pej-person

‘the little (disliked) person’

b. e-ɑɸ-leθelune
def-pej-child

‘the (disliked) child’

The examples in (40) demonstrate, again, the distinction between the di-
minutive as a prefix and as a compounded form.
Nouns can be turned into adjectives with the prefix ‘eθɑ-’.

(41)

a. ɸehe

‘wind’

JESSIE SAMS

b. eθɑ-ɸehe
adj-wind
‘windy’

As adjectives, no other nominal markings are necessary; therefore, words
with ‘eθɑ-’ do not inflect for determinacy, number, or case. The only form
that has been fused and has a shifted accent is ‘éθɑsolɑ’ (‘everyday’). In all
other forms, like the example in (41b), the pitch accent falls on the initial
syllable of the base: ‘eθɑ-ɸéhe’.

4.5 Pronouns

Pronouns behave similarly to nouns by inflecting with the same case
markings and appearing in the same sentential positions (with the exception
of pronominal subjects, which are indicated on the verb and are thus de-
leted); however, there are different distinctions made for pronouns in terms
of formality, animacy, and inclusiveness.

Singular

Plural

Informal

Formal

Informal

Formal

First

θexo

θeeme (incl.)

θeome (excl.)

Second

θesu

θeseɑ

θeume

θesutɑ

Third

θeto (vol.)

θeleɑ

θeɑtɑ (vol.)

θelutɑ

ʦito (no vol.)

ɑɸto (inani.)

tiɑtɑ (no vol.)

ɑɸɑtɑ (inani.)

Table 9. Personal pronouns

The first-person pronouns are the only pronouns to not have an informal/
formal distinction, but they do have an inclusive/exclusive distinction for
the plural pronouns. In Hiuʦɑθ, two versions of ‘we’ are made explicit:
The inclusive form of ‘we’ includes the speaker and the person being ad-
dressed while the exclusive ‘we’ includes the speaker but not the addressee.

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

(42)

a. ifepɑ-to

θeeme-mɑ

believe-3s,pres 1p,incl-acc
‘She believes us’

b. ifepɑ-to

θeome-mɑ

believe-3s,pres 2p,excl-acc
‘She believes us’

In (42a), the addressee and speaker are part of the ‘θeeme’ while, in (42b),
the ‘θeome’ does not include the addressee (i.e., ‘us’ indicates the speaker
and at least one other person, but that other person is not the person being
spoken to).
The second-person pronouns have informal/formal distinctions in both
the singular and plural. The social hierarchy is determined by age so that
any Xiɸɑθe in an older generation than the speaker is addressed with the
formal ‘you’ (‘θeseɑ’). If there is a group of Xiɸɑθeho being addressed that
has at least one elder in it, the plural formal ‘you’ (‘θesutɑ’) is required.
Regardless of age, the Xiɸɑθeho never use the formal pronouns to refer to
humans.
The third-person pronouns carry the same informal/formal distinction
as the second-person pronouns, and they also carry animacy markers. The
formal third-person pronoun is only used for animate, volitional nouns (and
can be further narrowed to only being used for fellow Xiɸɑθeho). If a
speaker chooses to show disrespect for an elder Xiɸɑθe, she can use the
informal third-person pronoun ‘θeto’ to refer to the elder Xiɸɑθe (but not
when speaking to her directly). This disrespect through pronoun selection
can only be in third-person; it is a social taboo to show disrespect when
directly addressing the Xiɸɑθe in question.
The indefinite pronouns are like the personal pronouns in that they
inflect for case, but they do not carry distinctions for person, number, in-
clusiveness, animacy, or formality. The most common indefinite pronouns
(which also double as interrogative and relative pronouns) are the follow-
ing:

JESSIE SAMS

θe

osθe

one (pronoun for ‘person’)

some, any (unknown entity)

meloosθe

someone (lit. ‘who some’)

monɑosθe

something (lit. ‘what some’)

meɲiosθe

sometime (lit. ‘when some’)

mɑleosθe

somewhere (lit. ‘where some’)

mose

which

Table 10. Indefinite (and other) pronouns

As indefinite pronouns, the pronouns in Table 10 occur where their nomi-
nal counterparts occur in sentences—including subjects, which must be
expressed if indefinite.

(43)

a. ʦɑθhe-to meloosθe

θexo-mɑ

call-3s,pres someone,nom 1s-acc
‘Someone is calling me’
θexo-mɑ

b. ʦɑθhe-to

call-3s,pres 1s-acc
‘She is calling me’

As seen in (43a), the majority of the indefinite pronouns are considered
third-person singular (and informal). The only exception to that classifica-
tion is ‘osθe’, which is third-person plural (also informal) for verb agree-
ment. If the subject is deleted, it is assumed that the subject is known,
which is why (43b) cannot be translated as ‘someone is calling me’.
Other uses of the pronouns (i.e., interrogative and relative uses) in Ta-
ble 10 will be discussed in a later section.

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

Chapter 5
Verbs

The Hiuʦɑθ verbs inflect for voice, mood, aspect, evidentuality, tense,
person, and number (the last three are included in the same inflectional
morpheme). The ordering for these inflections is the following:

Voice-Mood-Aspect-Evidentual-VERB-Tense,Person,Number

While all those inflections are possible, all except the suffixed tense, per-
son, and number have an unmarked form, so not every finite verb has all
five inflections. When a verb appears in its bare form, it is in its infinitival
form:

(44)

ʃone

‘to begin’

The verb ‘ʃone’, provided in (44), is translated as the infinitival ‘to begin’
when it carries no inflections. The inflections discussed below begin with
the suffix (tense, person, number) and then move to the prefixes, beginning
with the prefix placed closest to the verb and moving out (i.e., beginning
with evidentuals and then moving out toward voice).

5.1 Person, number, and tense
The inflectional suffixes on verbs are all fusional suffixes that mark
tense, person, inclusive/exclusive distinctions on first-person plural forms,
and formality distinctions on second- and third-person forms. The five
tenses in Hiuʦɑθ are present, past (near- to mid-past), remote past, future
(near- to mid-future), and remote future.

JESSIE SAMS
38

Present

Past

Remote Past

Future

Remote Future

Sing Plural Sing Plural

Sing

Plural

Sing

Plural Sing

Plural

incl.

-xo

-eme

-ko

-keme

-kɑxo

-kɑeme

-so

-seme

-sɑxo

-sɑeme

excl.

-ome

-kɑme

-kɑome

-sɑme

-sɑome

inf.

-su

-ume

-ku

-kome

-kɑsu

-kɑume

-sɑu

-some

-sɑsu

-sɑume

form.

-seɑ

-sutɑ

-ke

-kotɑ

-kɑe

-kɑutɑ

-se

-sotɑ

-sɑe

-sɑutɑ

form.

-leɑ

-lutɑ

inf.

-to

-ɑtɑ

-kɑ

-kɑtɑ

-kɑto

-kɑɑtɑ

-sɑ

-sɑtɑ

-sɑto

-sɑɑtɑ

Table 11. Verbs: Tense, Person, Number

In Table 11, the first-person suffixes are divided into inclusive and exclusive
for the plural forms; this distinction is the same one made for pronouns—it
determines whether or not the addressee is being included in the ‘we’. The
second- and third-person suffixes both have informal and formal distinc-
tions. The third-person rows have formal and informal backwards so that
the second-person formal row can be directly above the third-person formal
row. That shifting in rows makes it easier to see that all formal forms, out-
side of the present tense, are the same. When a verb shows formal inflection
for any tense but the present tense, its meaning is ambiguous as to whether
the speaker is saying, for example, ‘you (formal) began’ or ‘she (formal)
began’. The third-person informal suffixes are for all third-person subjects,
including inanimate, animation non-volitional, and animate volitional sub-
jects. The formal third-person suffixes, however, are only for animate vo-
litional subjects, which can be further narrowed to include only Xiɸɑθeho
subjects (i.e., humans are animate volitional subjects but would not merit
the formal suffixes).
Historically, the verbal inflectional suffixes in Table 11 were agglutinat-
ing suffixes so that tense was a separate suffix from person/number. The
present tense was the unmarked form and so took no extra suffix. The past
tense suffix was ‘-kɑ’ and the future tense suffix was ‘-sɑ’. Over time, the
‘-kɑ’ and ‘-sɑ’ suffixes blended with the person/number suffixes to form
the past and future tenses while the “pure” forms retained their status as
the remote past and remote future tenses. The personal suffixes (seen most
clearly in the present tense column) are shortened forms of the personal
pronouns; thus, ‘θexo’ is the first-person singular pronoun, and ‘-xo’ is
the suffix indicating a first-person singular subject. It is possible that at

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ39

one point in the language’s history, the verbal suffixes were more like
compounded forms that eventually dropped the first syllable of the forms
marking person and number.
Examples of the verb ‘ʃone’ inflected for tense, person, and number are
in (45):

(45)

a. ʃone-xo

begin-1s,pres
‘I begin/I am beginning’

b. ʃone-kome

begin-2p,inform,past
‘you (pl. informal) began (in the near- to mid-past)’

c. ʃone-sɑeme

begin-1p,incl,rem.fut
‘we (inclusive) will begin (in the remote future)’

The present tense in Hiuʦɑθ can be translated either as the simple present
tense or as the present progressive, as in (45a). The labeling conventions
used in this grammar for the past and future tenses are provided in (45b-c):
If the label simply reads past or fut, the near- to mid- past/future is indi-
cated; if the remote past or future are being used, the label will read rem.
past or rem.fut.

5.2 Evidentuals, aspect, mood, and voice
There are seven layers of evidentual markings in Hiuʦɑθ, which only
appear on declarative utterances: speaker’s firsthand knowledge of the
statement’s truth, heresy (neutral), heresy (speaker has reason to believe
it), heresy (speaker has no reason to believe it), speaker believes its truth
through reasoning, speaker believes it to be a possibility, and speaker is
doubtful about its truth.

JESSIE SAMS

speaker knowledge —

heresy

heresy/reason

ɑʦe-

ɑ-

heresy/no reason

ɑne-

belief/reasoning

possibility

doubted

lo-

ʦu-

Table 12. Evidentual prefixes

The unmarked form indicates that the speaker has first-hand knowledge
of the event; as the unmarked form, it is indicative of the expectations
audiences have of their speakers to provide primarily information that the
speaker knows—without a doubt—to be true.

(46)

a. xiɲe-to

smile-3s,pres
‘she is smiling’ (and I know because I see her right now)

b. ɑʦe-xiɲe-to
here-smile-3s,pres

‘I heard she is smiling’ (neutral heresy)

c. ɑ-xiɲe-to
here,r-smile-3s,pres

‘I heard she is smiling, and I have reason to believe it’

d. ɑne-xiɲe-to
here,nr-smile-3s,pres

‘I heard she is smiling, but I have no reason to believe it’

e. lo-xiɲe-to

bel-smile-3s,pres
‘I believe she is smiling through reasoning’ (e.g., I know
her, and this would cause her to smile)
i-xiɲe-to
poss-smile-3s,pres
‘she could be smiling’ (it is entirely within the realm of pos-
sibility)

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

g. ʦu-xiɲe-to
dou-smile-3s,pres

‘I doubt she is smiling’ (but she could be)

The most common forms of lying in Hiuʦɑθ rely on the misuse of these
evidentual prefixes. If, for instance, a speaker says ‘xiɲeto’ in (46a) but
does not actually have first-hand knowledge of the smiling (i.e., the speaker
cannot see her and so does not know for sure that she is smiling), that is
considered a lie. The neutral heresy form, provided in (46b) is the speaker’s
way of simply saying, “I heard it” without making a comment on its believ-
ability, thus leaving it up to the addressee to decide if she believes the state-
ment. That neutral form, along with the first-hand knowledge form, are the
only forms available to speakers that do not indicate the speaker’s stance—
all other forms indicate how the speaker feels about what is being discussed
(in terms of believability). When the subject is a first-person subject (either
singular or plural), the unmarked evidentual form is the only option.
The four distinctions of aspect on verbs are aorist/simple, perfective,
imperfective, and habitual:

AOR/SIMP —

PERF

IMPERF

ni-

ɸɑ-

HABITUAL ʃɑ-

Table 13. Aspect prefixes

The unmarked form for aspect is the simple or aorist reading; examples of
aspectual prefixes are provided in (47):

(47)

a. seɲe-ko

sing-1s,past
‘I sang’
b. ni-seɲe-ko

perf-sing-1s,past
‘I had sung’
c. ɸɑ-seɲe-ko

imperf-sing-1s,past
‘I had been singing’/ ‘I was singing’

JESSIE SAMS

d. ʃɑ-seɲe-ko
hab-sing-1s,past

‘I used to sing’ / ‘I would sing’

The imperfective, like the example in (47c), only appears in the four past
and future tenses; in the present tense, the unmarked (simple) form, as in
‘seɲexo’, can be translated either as ‘I sing’ or ‘I am singing’. The un-
marked present tense would not, though, be translated as a habitual because
habitual present tense would carry that marking: ʃɑseɲexo ‘I sing (every
day)’.
The five possible moods of Hiuʦɑθ verbs are declarative, interrogative,
imperative/hortative, subjunctive, and optative.

DEC

INT

—

(ʦi-)

IMP/HORT xe-

SUBJ

OPT

tɑ-

lu-

Table 14. Mood prefixes

Table 14 shows that the declarative form is the unmarked form and that
the interrogative is an optional marker. The interrogative prefix is only at-
tached to the verb when the verb is in question—questions and interroga-
tive markers will be discussed more fully in a later section. The examples
in (48) provide the mood prefixes with the verb ‘neʃi’ (‘to go’):

(48)

a. neʃi-su

go-2p, pres
‘you go’ / ‘you are going’

b. ʦi-neʃi-su

int-go-2p, pres
‘are you going?’

c. xe-neʃi-su

imp-go-2p, pres
‘go!’

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

d. tɑ-neʃi-su

subj-go-2p, pres
‘if you were to go’

e. lu-neʃi-su
opt-go-2p, pres
‘may you go’

The translations provided in (48) for the moods are typical. One difference
between the moods is that the imperative/hortative and optative moods can
only be used in present and future tenses; neither can be combined with the
past tenses. All other moods, though, can combine with any of the tenses.
While most of the moods are more straight-forward, the imperative mood
is the exception.
When the imperative is used with a second-person informal subject
(singular or plural), it is a command form, as in (48c); when it is used with
a second-person formal subject (singular or plural), though, it is rendered
as encouragement or urging rather than a command:

(49)

xe-neʃi-seɑ

‘you should go’

When the imperative/hortative is used with first-person or third-person, it is
the hortative ‘let…’ construction:

(49)

a. xe-neʃi-ɑtɑ
b. xe-neʃi-eme

‘let them go’
‘let’s go’

In very rare cases, the imperative/hortative could be construed as an im-
perative with the first-person singular:

(50)

xe-neʃi-xo

‘go!’ (I ordered myself) / ‘let me go’

All these instances will be glossed as imp for simplicity’s sake; however, in
that label, all the above readings are possible—the subject and context will
determine which reading is best in a particular situation.
As mentioned earlier, the interrogative marker is only used when the
verb is being questioned; otherwise, there is a separate interrogative par-
ticle that goes before the verb to indicate that a question is being asked.

JESSIE SAMS

(51)

a. ʦɑh ʦi-lɑʃɑ-su

int-do-2s, pres

int
‘what are you doing?’ (where the expected answer is a verb)

b. ʦɑh
int
‘what are you doing?’ (where the expected answer is a noun)

lɑʃɑ-su
do-2s,pres

ʦi-monɑ
int-what

In (51a), the speaker wants to know what action/verb the addressee is doing
(e.g., singing, dancing, thinking) while the speaker wants to know what the
addressee is doing in (51b) (e.g., homework, the dishes). These distinctions
(and more like them) will be more thoroughly discussed in a later section.
While Hiiʦɑθ utilizes both active and passive voices on verbs, the pas-
sive voice is restricted in its usage, and the grammatical subject is marked
differently than it is in English.

ACT —

PASS pe-

Table 15. Voice prefixes

As Table 15 shows, the active voice is the unmarked form, and the passive
voice is the marked form. Examples of active and passive sentences are in
(52):

(52)

a. felɑ-ko

e-lelune-mɑ

hit-1s,past def-girl-acc
‘I hit the girl’

b. pe-felɑ-kɑ

e-lelune-mɑ

pass-hit-3s,past def-girl-acc
‘the girl was hit’

c. felɑ-kɑ

e-lelune-mɑ

hit-3s,past def-girl-acc
‘she hit the girl’

d. pe-felɑ-kɑ

pass-hit-3s,past
‘she was hit’

The examples in (52a) and (52c) show the active constructions in which the
girl ‘lelune’ is the object of the transitive verb ‘felɑ’ and is marked with

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

the accusative case. The example in (52b), however, demonstrates that the
grammatical subject of a passive verb is also marked with the accusative
case, and the example in (52d) demonstrates that the grammatical subject
of a passive verb does not need to be outwardly expressed. Passive verbs
agree in person and number with the grammatical subject (in this case,
‘lelune’).
The passive voice in Hiuʦɑθ is restricted in that it can only be used to
indicate one of the following four situations: (1) the source is unknown or
is one of many possibilities; (2) the source does not matter; (3) the source is
known, but the speaker is keeping it to herself; or (4) the source is obvious
through verb selection. Due to these restrictions, the “doer” of the action is
never represented in a passive structure (i.e., Hiuʦɑθ has no way of saying
‘she was hit by the girl’—it would have to be rendered as either simply ‘she
was hit’ or ‘the girl hit her’). Moreover, some verbs cannot be passivized
or can only be passivized for particular meanings:

(53)

a. pɑoʃθɑmo

‘to burn’ (when active, indicates someone is burning some
one/something (transitive); when passive, indicates that fire
is responsible (intransitive))
b. pe-pɑoʃθɑmo-sɑ θeto-mɑ
pass-burn-3s,fut 3s-acc
‘she will be burned’ (she is standing close to the fire, and the
flames could reach her); cannot be used to indicate that
someone will burn her with fire

c. pɑoʃθɑmo-sɑ θeto-mɑ
burn-3s,fut 3s-acc
‘she will burn her’

For verbs like ‘pɑoʃθɑmo’, where the passive is not allowed or where it
is restricted, the speaker can still express that the subject (i.e., the person
doing the burning) is unknown through the use of indefinite pronouns:
‘pɑoʃθɑmosɑ meloosθe θetomɑ’ (‘someone will burn her’).

It is not possible for marked forms of all five inflections to appear on
the same verb since the declarative is the only mood that can take eviden-
tual markings (and the declarative is the unmarked mood); therefore, the
most marked inflections a verb can have at once is four:

JESSIE SAMS

(54)

pe-lu-ʃɑ-lisune-sɑu
pass-opt-hab-bless-fut
‘may you always be blessed’

When examples like (54) occur, the pitch accent remains on the initial
syllable of the verb base (in this case, the ‘li’ of ‘lisune’); all prefixes are
spoken with a neutral pitch—even with a string of three prefixes.

5.3 Derivations on verbs
Verbs are the basis of many other words formed in Hiuʦɑθ and, thus,
have a large number of derivations possible. The majority of the derivations
are attached directly to the verb root, with the exception of negation:

(NEG-)Voice-Mood-Aspect-Evidentual-(verbal.derivation-)VERB-

Tense,Person,Number

All verbal derivations—derivations that do not change the verb’s part
of speech—are prefixes. All deverbal derivations—those that change the
verb’s part of speech to another category—are suffixes attached directly to
the root:

VERB-deverbal.derivation

Because deverbal derivations change a verb into another part of speech,
no other verbal derivations or inflections are possible with those suffixes;
instead, the inflections will be those of the noun or adjective (depending on
the deverbal derivation used). Table 16 provides the most common deriva-
tions:

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

self (‘alone’)

moθe-

DIM

spec. Gift

NEG

NOM

lei-

xi-

ŋɑ-

nei-

-θe

-iθo

-ɑθ

see vs. See

dec./int.

imp./subj/opt

for ‘one who…’

for ‘thing used to…’

PARTICIPLE (adj)

-lih

for ‘thing/one that is…’

PARTICIPLE (adj)

-lɑθ

for ‘thing/one used for…’

Table 16. Derivations

The first five entries in Table 16 are the verbal derivations (all of which are
prefixes) that change the meaning but not the part of speech category of
the verb. The first three entries are the verbal derivations attached directly
to the verb root; if more than one is used, they are attached in the order
presented in Table 16 (i.e., self-dim-gift-verb). The final four entries in
Table 16 are the deverbal derivations (all of which are suffixes) that change
the meaning and part of speech category for the verb.

(55) moθe-ʦɑhɲe-ko

self-ask-1s,past
‘I alone asked her’ / ‘I asked her myself’

θeto-mɑ
3s-acc

As the example in (55) demonstrates, there are two possible readings of any
verb that takes the ‘moθe-’ prefix: The subject acted alone, or there is em-
phasis on the subject doing it (in English, that emphasis is shown through
the reflexive, which has no other grammatical role in the sentence).

In Hiuʦɑθ, nouns are not the only category that can take diminutive

forms: Verbs can also take diminutive forms, as in (56):

(56)

a. hiʦe
b. lei-hiʦe

‘to freeze’
‘to (little) freeze’

JESSIE SAMS

The verb ‘hiʦe’ in (56a) can take the diminutive ‘lehiʦe’ (56b) to mean
something like ‘to frost’ or ‘to freeze but with a thin layer of ice’.
The derivational ‘xi-’ denotes that the verb is in its Xiɸɑθ (‘Gift’) form
and not the common form of the verb:

(57)

a. ʃinɑ
b. xi-ʃinɑ

‘to see’
‘to See’

When the common form of ‘ʃinɑ’ is used, as in (57a), it indicates that the
subject is using her physical eyes to see something; when the Xiɸɑθ form
is used, as in (57b), it indicates that the subject is using her Xiɸɑθ to See
something (in all cases, capitalization in the English form will be used to
indicate these distinctions in translations). The ‘xi-’ prefix takes a slightly
different meaning when it receives the pitch accent:

(58)

a. xi-ʃínɑ
b. xí-ʃinɑ

The example in (58a) indicates that a Xiɸɑθe is performing the Seeing, but
that Xiɸɑθe may not be specifically Gifted with Sight. The form in (58b)
indicates that one of the Seers is performing the Seeing. All Xiɸɑθeho, to
some extent, can perform all the Xiɸɑθho (‘Gifts’) for their own benefit
(i.e., not to help others) while only those Xiɸɑθeho with the specific Gift
can perform that Gift for anyone’s benefit. In other words, a Seer can help
others See things while any other Xiɸɑθeho can only See certain things for
themselves.
Verbs have two negations possible: ‘ŋɑ-’ is used for declarative and
interrogative moods while ‘nei-’ is used for all others (imperative, subjunc-
tive, and optative).

(59)

a. ŋɑ-ɸɑ-peʃne-ku
neg-imperf-walk-3s,past

‘She wasn’t walking’

b. nei-xe-peʃne-to
neg-imp-walk-3s,pres
‘Don’t let her walk’

The examples in (59) demonstrate the placement of the negative markers:
They precede all other verbal prefixes.

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

The derivational suffixes for verbs change the verb’s part of speech;
three are nominal suffixes, and two are adjectival suffixes (often labeled as
‘participials’). The three nominal suffixes are in (60):

(60)

‘to work’
‘worker’

a. ɑlexo
b. ɑlexo-θe
c. ɑlexo-iθo ‘work’
d. ɑlexo-ɑθ ‘machine’

The verb ‘ɑlexo’ can take all three nominal suffixes to become the nouns
in (60b-d). The ‘-θe’ suffix is best translated as ‘one who…’, which means
‘ɑlexoθe’ in (60b) is literally ‘one who works’. The ‘-iθo’ suffix changes a
verb to a noun, so ‘ɑlexoiθo’ in (60c) is translated as ‘work’ in its nominal
sense. Finally, the ‘-ɑθ’ suffix can be translated as ‘thing used to…’, which
makes the literal translation of ‘ɑlexoɑθ’ in (60d) ‘thing used to work’ (i.e.,
a machine).
The two adjectival suffixes for verbs are in (61):

(61)

a. xomelɑʃ

lisune-lih
location bless-adj
‘blessed place/location’

b. leθuloʃ ɑlexo-lɑθ
room work-adj
‘working room’

The ‘-lih’ adjectival suffix is used to indicate ‘thing/one that is…’, so
‘xomelɑʃ lisunelih’ in (61a) could be translated as ‘place that is blessed’.
The ‘-lɑθ’ suffix, on the other hand, is used to indicate ‘thing/one used
for…’, so ‘leθuloʃ ɑlexolɑθ’ in (61b) could be translated as ‘room used for
working’, which could be applied to any room used for working such as an
office, studio, or workshop.

5.4 Copula and prepositional verbs
All the prepositions double as copula-like verbs, meaning ‘be prep’; for
instance, ‘I am in the water’ would be realized as ‘in I the water’, where
the preposition ‘in’ means ‘be in’. In other words, ‘mɑθo’ (‘be’) is simply
dropped out.

JESSIE SAMS

(62)

a. hɑθes-xo

ɑ-hɑʃose-hɑθ

(be.)in-1s,pres def-water-loc
‘I am in the water’

b. nɑɸθe-xo

ɑ-hɑʃose-hɑθ

swim-1s,pres def-water-loc
‘I am swimming in the water’

The preposition ‘hɑθes’ doubles as a verb meaning ‘to be in’; the noun in
the sentence takes the case the preposition requires (in this case, ‘hɑθes’
requires the locative). When acting as a verb, the preposition inflects like
a verb. Many prepositions are only expressed in these copulative expres-
sions; for example, ‘hɑθes’ is not outwardly expressed in (62b) but is un-
derstood through the use of the bare locative.
The copula ‘mɑθo’ (‘to be’) is only used with predicative nouns, adjec-
tives, and some adverbs like those in (63).

(63)

a. mɑθo-to

xiɸɑθe
be-3s,pres Gifted
‘She is a Gifted’

b. mɑθo-to

be-3s,pres
‘She is beautiful’

ʃoθemo-teɸ
beautiful-pred

c. mɑθo-to

be-3s,pres
‘She is here’

pɑlɑ
here

When the copula ‘mɑθo’ connects two nouns, both are in the nominative
cases; the generally expected order is ‘Copula Subj PredN’.

(63) mɑθo-to

e-lelune
be-3s,pres def-girl
‘The girl is an outcast’

mone-xepoleθɑθe
indef-outcast

The example in (63) is most typically translated as ‘The girl is an outcast’
and not ‘An outcast is the girl’.

5.5 Auxiliary verbs
Hiuʦɑθ has a relatively low number of auxiliary verbs, as many of the
meanings expressed by auxiliary verbs can be expressed through mood and

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

aspect markers directly on the verb. The four most common (and possibly
only) auxiliary verbs are the following:

θɑlu

can

pɑɸe

may

hɑsɑnɑ must

mifne

should

Table 17. Auxiliary verbs

The first, ‘θɑlu’, expresses an ability—the subject is able to perform or do
the action indicated in the main verb. That is in opposition to the next aux-
iliary, ‘pɑɸe’, which indicates that the subject is allowed to perform or do
the action indicated in the main verb. The third, ‘hɑsɑnɑ’, is most closely
translated as ‘must’ (e.g., ‘I must go’) and should not be translated as ‘need
to’ or ‘have to’ (e.g., ‘I need to go’ or ‘I have to go’), as those translations
lose some of the urgency of the Hiuʦɑθ ‘hɑsɑnɑ’. Finally, the last auxil-
iary in Table 17, ‘mifne’ can be translated as ‘should’ or ‘might’ or even
‘would’—it indicates a realm of possibility that cannot be expressed by the
moods and does not have a direct translation into English.
When an auxiliary is used, it typically precedes the main verb:

(64)

a. θɑlu neʃi-to

go-3s,pres

can
‘She can go’ (she is capable of going)

b. pɑɸe neʃi-to
may go-3s,pres

‘She may go’ (she is allowed to go)

c. hɑsɑnɑ neʃi-to
must go-3s,pres
‘She must go’
d. mifne neʃi-to

should go-3s,pres
‘She should go’ (or ‘She might go’ or ‘She would go’)

The examples in (64) are all valid utterances in Hiuʦɑθ; however, there is
typically a specific reason a speaker chooses to rely on an auxiliary rather
than other means of expressing the same idea. Usually, when an auxiliary

JESSIE SAMS

is used, the meaning of the auxiliary is being emphasized. For example, if
one person says, “She wants to go,” another might answer, “She may go,”
emphasizing the fact that no one is holding her back from going. Thus,
auxiliaries are often emphatic in Hiuʦɑθ.

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ53

Chapter 6
Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives and adverbs share one derivational prefix and one inflection-
al prefix; these shared prefixes are the only two typically seen with adverbs:

NEG ɲɑ-

INT ʦi-

Table 18. Shared adjectival and adverbial prefixes

Both the negative and interrogative markers attach directly to what is being
negated or questioned.

(65)

a. xiɲe-to

ɲɑ-soʃoθemo

smile-3s,pres neg-beautifully
‘She is smiling not beautifully’ (she is smiling, but it isn’t
pretty)
b. xiɲe-to

e-lelune
smile-3s,pres def-girl
‘The not beautiful girl is smiling’ (she is smiling, but she
isn’t beautiful)
xiɲe-to
smile-3s,pres int-beautifully

c. ʦɑh
int
‘Is she smiling beautifully?’ (she is definitely smiling, but is
it beautifully done?)

ɲɑ-ʃoθemo
neg-beautiful

ʦi-soʃoθemo

e-lelune
xiɲe-to
d. ʦɑh
int
smile-3s,pres def-girl
‘Is the girl who is smiling beautiful?’

ʦi-ʃoθemo
int-beautiful

Every major element in an utterance can be questioned or negated, and
the examples in (65) demonstrate how negation and interrogative markers
work with adjectives and adverbs. The examples in (65) can be contrasted
with examples of nouns and verbs that are negated and/or questioned.

JESSIE SAMS

6.1 Attributive and predicative adjectives
The two major types of adjectives in Hiuʦɑθ are attributive and pred-
icative. When adjectives are attributive, they generally follow the noun they
modify:

(66)

a. (meni-)uʦekɑ ufte

(indef-)bird strange
‘a strange bird’

b. i-uʦekɑ
ufte
def-bird strange
‘the strange bird
c. i-uʦekɑ
ʃoθexɑme-ɑʃ
ufte
def-bird strange beautiful-and
‘the strange and beautiful bird’

As in the example in (66c), if more than one attributive adjective modifies
a noun, the adjectives are listed after the noun, with each subsequent adjec-
tive taking the ‘ɑʃ’ conjunction.

Predicative adjectives primarily occur with copulas (though, to some
extent, may also occur with other linking verbs), and an inflectional suffix,
‘-teɸ’, marks the adjective’s status as predicative.

(67) mɑθo-to

be-3s,pres
‘She is foolish’

puɲeo-teɸ
foolish-pred

The ‘-teɸ’ suffix distinguishes which adjective is the predicative adjective
when other boundaries are not clearly marked:

(68) mɑθo-to

so-eθɑ-pofte

lelune

be-3s,inform,pres adv-adj-frequency girl

puɲeo-teɸ

ʃoθemo
beautiful foolish-pred
‘A beautiful girl is often foolish’

In (68), the attributive adjective ‘ʃoθemo’ is distinguished from the predica-
tive adjective ‘puɲeo’ by the predicative marker.

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

6.2 Comparative and superlative forms
Along with interrogative and predicative forms, adjectives can also car-
ry inflections to indicate comparisons:

COMP

uʦe-

SUPER hiuʦe-

Table 19. Comparative and superlative forms

Adjectives in their comparative form are similar to adjectives with the ‘-er’
suffix in English (e.g., ‘taller’), and adjectives in their superlative form are
similar to adjectives with the ‘-est’ suffix in English (e.g., ‘tallest’). The
comparative and superlative prefixes are directly based on the adjectives
meaning ‘better’ (‘uʦe’) and ‘best’ or ‘superior’ (‘hiuʦe’). The forms in
Table 19 can be added to any gradable adjective:

(69)

a. uʦe-nisθu
b. hiuʦe-ʃoθemo

‘newer’ or ‘younger’
‘most beautiful’

The adjectives ‘good’ and ‘bad’ take a new meaning in their comparative
and superlative forms:

(70)

a. hiuʦe-fɑe

super-bad
‘abominable’
b. hiuʦe-iɸune
super-good
‘holy, sacred’

c. uʦe-fɑe

comp-bad
‘inferior’ (describes someone the speaker looks down on)

d. uʦe-iɸune

comp-good
‘uppity’ (describes someone who thinks they are better than
everyone else)

The comparative and superlative forms meaning ‘better/best’ and ‘worse/
worst’ are suppletive forms; ‘uʦe/hiuʦe’ have already been provided, but
‘worse/worst’ is ‘fɑse/hofɑse’.

JESSIE SAMS

Yet other adjectives cannot take the comparative or superlative forms:

(71)

a. *uʦe-iɸote
comp-right
*‘more right, true’

b. *hiuʦe-fɑhote
super-wrong
*‘most wrong, false’

Adjectives like those in (71) are not gradable and so cannot be compared
by degrees.

6.3 Animacy and adjectives

For clarity or emphasis, adjectives have optional animacy inflections,
with the three distinctions made for determiners and pronouns: animate and
volitional, animate and non-volitional, and inanimate.

Ani. with vol.

(oθe-)

Ani. no vol.

(eʦi-)

Inani.

(ɑɸɑ-)

Table 20. Animacy markings on adjectives

The prefixes in Table 20 can be used with any adjective; however, some ad-
jectives distinguish among the categories in Table 20 without the prefixes:

(72)

a. fɑe

‘bad’ (of people)

b. fɑɑɸne

‘bad’ (of objects)

When adjectives are inflected for animacy, it can clarify the range of the
adjectival meaning as it is being used in the sentence. For example, the ad-
jective ‘fɑhote’ (‘false, wrong’) has a stronger and more negative connota-
tion if it is modifying a noun that is animate and has volition—it indicates
that the noun had a choice in being false or wrong. Therefore, the form
‘oθefɑhote’ carries more weight than ‘fɑhote’ alone or even ‘ɑɸɑfɑhote’
(which indicates an object or idea is simply wrong). Using ‘oθefɑhote’ also

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

emphasizes the fact that the noun has volition, indicating in this case that
the wrongness may have been a choice on the noun’s part (i.e., the person
being described had a choice in being wrong and chose to be wrong).

6.4 Case and adjectives
While comparitive, superlative, and animacy are features marked on
both attributive and predicative adjectives, only attributive adjectives in-
flect for case. The cases for adjectives are the same for nouns, but adjec-
tives mark those cases differently, as shown in Table 21:

NOM

ACC

GEN

DAT

—

-ɑmo

-es

-ise

LOC, COM, INSTR, ABL -eɸ

VOC

-itɑ

Table 21. Case markings on adjectives

Like nouns, the attributive adjectives in the nominative case are unmarked;
unlike nouns, adjectives conflate four cases (locative, comitative, instru-
mental, ablative), marking them with a single suffix.
Because case marking can clarify which noun an attributive adjective
is describing, typical word order can be violated without a loss in intended
meaning in utterances:

(73)

xɑfʦɑ ʃiɑŋe-kɑto
strong hunt-3s,inform,rem.past man
‘A strong man hunted a slow animal’

xɑpone ʃɑmɑ-ɑmo tɑmɑli-mɑ
slow-acc animal-acc

Instances like those in (73) only naturally occur when emphasis is on the
adjective(s)—the utterance in (73) might be better translated as ‘It was a
strong man who hunted, and it was a slow animal that he hunted’. How-
ever, even that translation does not capture the emphasis on the adjectives.
Even with the adjectives moved around, it is clear that ‘xɑfʦɑ’ is describ-
ing ‘xɑpone’ because both are in the unmarked nominative form while
‘ʃɑmɑɑmo’ and ‘tɑmɑlimɑ’ both carry accusative markers.

JESSIE SAMS

6.5 Derivations and adjectives
Along with the inflections described in previous sections, adjectives can
also take the following derivational prefixes:

DIM

nominalize

li-

teʃ-

NOM (‘one who’)

ɑθe-

verbalize

adverbialize

ɑxi-

so-

Table 22. Derivational prefixes

The derivations for adjectives, provided in Table 22, are all prefixes. The
first prefix in Table 22 is the only derivational prefix that does not change
the adjective’s part of speech: the diminutive ‘li-’.

(74)

li-isɲesɑŋelo

dim-smart

‘little smart’

The diminutive, when added to an adjective, means ‘to a lesser degree’ or
‘little bit’, so the example in (74) could be translated as ‘smart to a lesser
degree’ or ‘a little bit smart’. In other words, the person or animal in ques-
tion is not smart, per se, but is a ‘little smart’.
The other prefixes in Table 22 change the adjective’s part of speech:

(75)

a. teʃ-fɑhote
nom-wrong

‘sin’ (lit. ‘thing that is wrong’ or ‘quality of being wrong’)

b. ɑθe-luɸitos
nom-stupid

‘stupid person’ (lit. ‘one who is stupid’)

c. ɑxi-hɑo
ver-big

‘swell’ (lit. ‘make big’)

d. so-seli
adv-sweet
‘sweetly’

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

The nominal prefix in (75a) turns an adjective into a noun that is generally
some type of idea like ‘sin’; other examples include ‘teʃisɲesɑŋelo’ (‘intel-
ligence, smartness’) and ‘teʃeolɑ’ (‘emptiness’). However, sometimes the
‘teʃ-’ prefix can indicate a physical object, especially when used with col-
ors: ‘teʃxɑolisθɑ’ (‘thing that is green’—a green object). The ‘teʃ-’ prefix
can be contrasted with the ‘ɑθe-’ prefix, which also nominalizes the adjec-
tive; however, it changes the adjective into a noun meaning ‘one who is…’,
like the example in (75b).
While the verbal ‘ɑxi-’ prefix in (75c) is most generally translated as
‘make ADJ’ (e.g., ‘swell’ or ‘make big’), it does not denote causation. The
‘ɑxi-’ verbs would not be used to mean ‘caused to become ADJ’; instead,
they are used to indicate a change in states, with the adjective component
denoting the final state. Thus, ‘ɑxiʦio’ means ‘make fast’ or ‘become fast’
but does not indicate that the subject did anything to cause the fastness—
the subject became fast. Many of the ‘ɑxi-’ verbs have become part of the
vocabulary, like ‘ɑxihɑo’, and the stress has shifted to the [ɑ] in ‘ɑxi-’
rather than remaining on the adjectival base (‘hɑo’). The accent location
is generally marked in dictionaries on these ‘ɑxi-’ verbs since they do not
follow the typical pronunciation guidelines. Adjectives are the only words
that can be turned into verbs—generally speaking, the verb base comes first
and can be derived into other parts of speech.

Finally, the ‘so-’ prefix in (75d) turns an adjective into an adverb. Some-
times the adjective is a bare one, like ‘seli’ in (80d); other times, though,
the adjective itself is a derived form: ‘soeθɑpofte’ (which breaks down to
‘so-eθɑ-pofte’—adv-adj-noun), meaning ‘frequently’ (its noun base means
‘frequency’, and its adjectival form means ‘frequent’).

6.6 Numbers
Numbers in Hiuʦɑθ behave like adjectives: When they are attributive,
they are marked for case and typically follow the noun they modify, and
when they are predicative, they carry the inflectional suffix to mark their
predicative status.

(76)

a. sio-ɑtɑ

ɑ-leoɲele-ho

near-3p,pres def-stream-pl
‘The two streams are near us’

b. mɑθo-ɑtɑ
be-3p,pres
‘They are two’ (‘there are two’)

ʃolu-teɸ
two-pred

ʃolu
two

θeeme-hɑθ
1p,incl-loc

JESSIE SAMS

The number ‘ʃolu’ is used attributively in (76a) and predicatively in (76b).
The cardinal numbers 1-12 have unpredictable forms (the word for ‘zero’
is ‘neɑɸθe’, which literally translates as ‘no thing’):

mone

ʃolu

θele

ɸɑle

ɸiɸlu

sixɑ

sife

ɑhne

neni

tonɑ

eneso

θuneso

Table 23. Numbers 1-12

While ‘θuneso’ is the word for 12, it is a sacred word and used only in
conjunction with the Xiɸɑθeho families or Gifts. When referring to any-
thing else, its common form is used, which is formed the same way as the
numbers 13 and above.
After 12, the system becomes predictable, with the teens and the com-
mon form of 12 being named as <>; for ex-
ample, ‘thirteen’ is literally translated as ‘ten-three’.

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ61

tonɑʃolu

tonɑθele

tonɑɸɑle

etc.

Table 24. Numbers 12-19

The sacred ‘θuneso’ is replaced with the common form ‘tonɑʃolu’ in Table
24 when referring to anything not related to the Xiɸɑθeho. The numbers
20, 30, 40, and so on are derived from the numbers as they are divisible
by ten; therefore, 20 is literally translated as ‘ten twos’, and 40 is literally
translated as ‘four tens’. The plural marker is the suffix ‘-ho’.

ʃolutonɑho

θeletonɑho

ɸɑletonɑho

etc.

Table 25. Numbers 20, 30, 40, etc.

The numbers in between those divisible by ten are named similarly to the
teens; for example, 21 is literally ‘two tens and one’ (‘ɑʃ’ is ‘and’).

ʃolutonɑho moneɑʃ

ʃolutonɑho ʃoluɑʃ

ʃolutonɑho θeleɑʃ

etc.

Table 26. Numbers 21, 22, 23, etc.

The number 21 is also a sacred number and has a “pure” form: ‘moɑʃoɲelo’.
This form is used only when referring to the Xiɸɑθeho and their life cycles.
The only other exception is the number 84, which is ‘iɸotenosɑiθo’ (liter-

JESSIE SAMS62

ally ‘right/true number’). Again, the “common” forms of those numbers is
used for all things not related to the Xiɸɑθeho.
The number 100 then has its own name, but the numbers higher than
that are derived from 100; likewise, 1000 has its own designation with the
higher numbers being derived from it:

100

101

120

121

200

205

300

xeno

xeno moneɑʃ

xeno ʃolutonɑhoɑʃ

xeno ʃolutonɑhoɑʃ moneɑʃ

ʃoluxenoho

ʃoluxenoho ɸiɸluɑʃ

θelexenoho

1000

tɑʃes

2000

ʃolutɑʃesho

etc.

Table 27. Numbers 100 and above

The Gifteds have yet to find a reason to count above 9,999 (nenitɑʃesho
nenixenohoɑʃ nenitonɑhoɑʃ neniɑʃ). In fact, 1000 is more of a guesstimate
rather than an actual counting number. For instance, if there are many peo-
ple—too many to count—one would say the equivalent of ‘at least 1000’
to indicate how many there were. Since the Xiɸɑθeho have no money and
find no benefits to counting everything around them, they tend to not use
numbers even into the hundreds.
The above counting system is the current number system in Hiuʦɑθ;
however, it was not the original number system. Historically, Hiuʦɑθ only
had the numbers 1-12 (with the form of 12 being its “pure” form), and their
counting system had a base of 12. So 13 was ‘θunesomone’ (lit. ‘twelve
one’), and the next major number was 24, ‘ʃoluθunesoho’ (lit. ‘two twelves’).
It was not until the Xiɸɑθeho lived in Europe that they adopted a counting
system based on tens. The modern word for ‘hundred’ (‘xeno’) historically
meant ‘very many’, and the modern word for ‘thousand’ (‘tɑʃes’) histori-
cally meant ‘too many to count’.

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ
The ordinal numbers, with the exception of ‘noi’ (‘first’), are all direct-
ly derived from the cardinal number they are associated with, as in Table
28 below:

cardinal ordinal

mone

noi

ʃolu

θele

ɸɑle

ʃoluθɑ

θeleθɑ

ɸaleθɑ

etc.

Table 28. Cardinal and ordinal numbers

The ordinal suffix ‘-θɑ’ makes a cardinal number into an ordinal one (e.g.,
‘three’ becomes ‘third’). Like the cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers are
treated as adjectives in Hiuʦɑθ (with predicative and attributive inflec-
tions).

6.7 Other adjective-like words
Demonstratives act similar to attributive adjectives in their placement;
however, they do not receive the same inflections as adjectives, cannot co-
occur with determiners, and must occur after the noun they modify. Unlike
English, they cannot appear alone as demonstrative pronouns (i.e., they
must occur with the noun they are modifying). In Hiuʦɑθ, there are three
divisions for demonstratives:

(77)

a. ɑlɑ
b. ɑleo
c. esi

‘that’
‘that-there’ (or ‘that over there’)
‘this’

An example of a demonstrative being used in an utterance is in (78):

(78)

okesɑ-kɑ
suneo-mɑ ɑleo
keep-3s,past stone-acc dem
‘She kept that stone (over there)’

JESSIE SAMS

The utterance in (78) indicates that the stone is not nearby or, most likely,
even in the speaker’s line of sight. The stone is far away, but the speaker
and addressee both know which stone is being discussed. When an adjec-
tive also modifies the noun, the typical word order is noun adj dem, as in
(79):

(79)

lelune-mɑ luθeli-ɑmo

ʃinɑ-to
see-3s,pres girl-acc happy-acc dem
‘She sees that happy girl’

ɑlɑ

In (79), the adjective ‘luθeli’ (‘happy’) and the demonstrative ‘ɑlɑ’ (‘that’)
modify the noun ‘lelune’ (‘girl’). Though the adjective ‘luθeli’ is inflected
to match the case of ‘lelune’, the demonstrative does not inflect for case and
is typically placed after the noun and adjective.
One of the interrogative pronouns also behaves like an attributive ad-
jective:

(80) ʦɑh
int
‘She kept which stone?’ or ‘Which stone did she keep?’

okesɑ-kɑ
suneo-mɑ mose
keep-3s,past stone-acc which

Like the demonstrative, the interrogative pronoun ‘mose’ cannot stand
alone and, thus, cannot act as a predicative adjective.

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

Chapter 7
Negation and Clauses

7.1 Negation

In previous chapters, negation of individual words was discussed (i.e.,
negation of the noun, verb, adjective, and adverb). When individual words
are negated, there is a difference in meaning from when the entire sentence
is being negated because when an individual word is negated, it indicates
that only that specific word is receiving the negated reading. When an en-
tire sentence is negated, though, it indicates that the entire sentence is not
true:

(81)

a. ŋɑ-neʃi-kɑ
neg-sing-3s,past near def-Assembly.Hall-loc

sio ɑ-xɑiɸɑɲe-hɑθ

‘she did not sing near the Assembly Hall’

b. ŋɑi
neg

neʃi-kɑ
sing-3s,past near def-Assembly.Hall-loc

ɑ-xɑiɸɑɲe-hɑθ

sio

‘she did not sing near the Assembly Hall’

The example in (81a) indicates that she was, in fact, near the Assembly
Hall, but she was not singing (perhaps she was simply speaking or standing
there). While the English translation is the same for (81b), in Hiuʦɑθ, it
indicates that she was neither singing nor was she near the Assembly Hall.
The negation marker for all declarative and interrogative utterances is ‘ŋɑi’,
and the negation marker for imperative, hortative, subjunctive, and optative
utterances is ‘ŋei’.
The examples in (81) can be compared with the following:

(82)

a. neʃi-kɑ

ɲɑ-sio

ɑ-xɑiɸɑɲe-hɑθ

sing-3s,past neg-near def-Assembly.Hall-loc
‘she sang not near the Assembly Hall’

b. neʃikɑ

sio

ɑ-ɲe-xɑiɸɑɲe-hɑθ

sing-3s,past near def-neg-Assembly.Hall-loc
‘she sang near not the Assembly Hall’

JESSIE SAMS

The example in (82a) indicates that she was, in fact singing, but she was not
near the Assembly Hall (rather, she was far away from it). The example in
(82b) also indicates that she was singing, and it also indicates that she was
near something, but it was not the Assembly Hall (perhaps she was near the
house instead). The examples in (81) and (82) demonstrate how every level
of the sentence can be negated to get finely tuned distinctions among the
different types of negation. The negative marker for adjectives and adverbs
(‘ɲɑ-’) is also the negative marker for prepositions.

7.2 Subordinate clauses
Hiuʦɑθ has three major types of subordinate clauses that will be dis-
cussed in this section: adverbial clauses, relative clauses, and nominal claus-
es. For all of the following types of clauses, the ‘kie’ marker plays a role in
identifying the subordinate clause; for glossing purposes, ‘kie’ is typically
considered a subordinator since its general role is to introduce some type
of subordinate clause. The typical placement of subordinate clauses is after
the main clause (i.e., S SubCl), with the subordinating conjunction intro-
ducing the subordinate clause (i.e., SubConj Clause). The expected word
order within subordinate clauses is the same as that of main clauses (VSO).

7.2.1 Adverbial clauses
Adverbial conjunctions provide the relationship between the adverbial
and main clauses; there are four primary types of relationships that are
expressed in Hiuʦɑθ adverbial clauses: temporal, condition, causation, and
contradiction.
Like the verb tenses, temporal adverbial conjunctions have five distinc-
tions that can roughly be translated as the following: (1) when, at the same
time; (2) before, just before, right before; (3) long before; (4) after, just
after, right after; and (5) long after. All five are demonstrated in (83) below:

(83)

a. neʃi-xo

i-uʦekɑ
kie-meɲi ɑlikɑθi-to
sub-when fly-3s,pres def-bird

go-1s,pres
‘I go when the bird flies’

b. neʃi-xo

go-1s,pres
‘I go after the bird flew’
kie-ɸeɸestɑ

c. neʃi-xo

go-1s,pres sub-long.after
‘I go long after the bird flew’

i-uʦekɑ
kie-ɸestɑ ɑlikɑθi-kɑ
sub-after fly-3s,past def-bird

ɑlikɑθi-kɑto
i-uʦekɑ
fly-3s,rem.past def-bird

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

d. neʃi-xo

kie-ʦuʃo ɑlikɑθi-sɑ i-uʦekɑ

go-1s,pres
‘I go before the bird will fly’

sub-before

e. neʃi-xo

kie-ʦuʦuʃo

go-1s,pres sub-long.before
‘I go long before the bird will fly’

fly-3s,fut def-bird

ɑlikɑθi-sɑto
fly-3s,rem.fut

i-uʦekɑ
def-bird

The subordinator ‘kie’ compounds with the Hiuʦɑθ words ‘meɲi’ (‘when’),
‘ɸestɑ’ (‘after’), and ‘ʦuʃo’ (‘before’) to form a subordinating conjunction
in (83a-b) and (83d). In a rare form of reduplication, the first syllable of
‘ɸestɑ’ and ‘ʦuʃo’ are reduplicated in the compound to form the subordi-
nating conjunctions that indicate the main clause occurred long before or
long after the subordinate clause in (83c) and (83e).
The tenses in the clauses play an important role in temporal subordinate
clauses. For this discussion, it is best to think of the five tenses of Hiuʦɑθ
as a scale from 1-5: (1) remote past, (2) past, (3) present (neutral), (4) fu-
ture, and (5) remote future. The subordinate conjunction ‘kiemeɲi’ requires
that both clauses are in the same tense; in (83a), both the main and subordi-
nate clauses are in the present tense. It would be ungrammatical to say, for
instance, ‘*neʃiko (past) kiemeɲi ɑlikɑθi-to (pres)’ because ‘kiemeɲi’ indi-
cates that the verbs in both clauses occurred at the same time. ‘Kieɸestɑ’,
however, requires that the tense of the subordinate clause be n-1 from that
of the main clause when possible. In (83b), the main clause is in the present
tense (‘neʃixo’), thus requiring that the subordinate clause to be in the past
tense (n-1). The only cases where the tense shift is not possible is when
the main clause is in the remote past—in the remote past, there is no way
of indicating a n-1 tense because there is no tense further back than the
remote past. So if two historical events are being chronologically ordered
and spoken about, it would be appropriate to use ‘kieɸestɑ’ with both the
main and subordinate clauses in the remote past tense. The subordinating
conjunction ‘kieɸeɸestɑ’ requires that the tense of the subordinate clause
be n-2 from that of the main clause when possible; thus, in (83c), the main
clause is in the present tense while the subordinate clause is in the remote
past (the remote past being two steps down on the five-step tense scale for
verbs). The n-2 requirement is allowed to be violated when the main clause
is in either the past or remote past tense: The n-2 tense does not exist for
either, so the appropriate tense for the subordinate clause in both cases is
the remote past.

JESSIE SAMS

The subordinate conjunctions ‘ʦuʃo’ and ‘ʦuʦuʃo’ work exactly like
‘ɸestɑ’ and ‘ɸeɸestɑ’, except in reverse. Therefore, ‘ʦuʃo’ requires that
the verb in the subordinate clause is n+1 from that of the verb in the main
clause when possible; in (83d), the main clause is in the present tense,
and the subordinate clause is in the future tense because the conjunction
is ‘ʦuʃo’. This n+1 step in tenses is not possible when the main clause is
in the remote future tense, so the subordinate and main clause may both
be in the remote future tense in that case. The subordinating conjunction
‘ʦuʦuʃo’ requires the the verb in the subordinate clause is n+2 from that
of the verb in the main clause when possible, which is why, in (83e), the
main verb is in the present tense and the subordinate verb is in the remote
future tense. For ‘ʦuʦuʃo’ the n+2 step in tenses is not possible when the
main clause is in either the future or remote future tenses, so the subordi-
nate clause will be in the remote future tense in both cases.
Another type of adverbial clause is the conditional clause, indicating
that ‘X will happen (main clause) if Y happens (subordinate clause)’:

(84)

osɑ-so
kie-ule
cry-1s,fut sub-if
‘I will cry if she cries’

osɑ-to
cry-3s,pres

When ‘ule’ introduces a subordinate clause, it must be compounded with
the subordinator ‘kie’. However, it can also be used to introduce a stand-
alone clause (i.e., a main clause) indicating a condition necessary for the
context of a particular conversation (unlike English, ‘if she cries’ is a gram-
matical, non-fragmented sentence in Hiuʦɑθ, and it would be introduced
by ‘ule’ alone). So while ‘kieule’ is generally recognized as a compounded
form, it might be better represented as ‘kie ule’ to indicate that the two
components do not have to occur together. When two clauses are tied to-
gether by ‘kieule’, the clauses can be in nearly any tense, as long as the
tenses indicate the relationship between the verbs of the clauses. The only
exceptions to that flexibility is that the main clause cannot be in either of the
past tenses (if the verb already occurred in the main clause, the appropriate
relationship between the clauses would be one of causation, not condition).
The example in (84) is a typical example of the tense relationship between
the main and subordinate clauses when the relationship is a conditional one.
Subordinate clauses indicating causation are much like those indicating

condition:

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

(85)

osɑ-ko
kie-ɑniso
cry-1s,past sub-because cry-3s,past
‘I cried because she cried’

osɑ-kɑ

The conjunction ‘ɑniso’ is like ‘ule’—it can occur on its own to introduce
a main clause. When it does, it does not have the ‘kie’ subordinator at-
tached to it. The only tense restriction on subordinate clauses introduced
by ‘kieɑniso’ is that the subordinate clause cannot be in either of the future
tenses (if the verb in the subordinate clause has not yet occurred, the ap-
propriate relationship is a conditional one). Other than that, any tense can
be used in the main clause, and the present and either of the past tenses
can be used in the subordinate clause, as long as the appropriate relation-
ship between the clauses is being expressed through the tenses used. The
example in (85) has both clauses in the past tense, indicating that both the
causing factor and the resulting state occurred in roughly the same time
frame in the past.
The final relationship that can be expressed with adverbial clauses is
contradiction:

(86)

osɑ-to
kie-omos
xilɑ-xo
laugh-1s,pres sub-though
cry-3s,pres
‘I am laughing even though she is crying’

Like ‘ule’ and ‘ɑniso’, ‘omos’ can occur on its own to introduce a main
clause; however, when it is used as a subordinating conjunction to tie two
clauses together, it occurs with the subordinator ‘kie’. With ‘kieomos’,
there are not tense restrictions—as long as the tenses in the clauses express
the appropriate relationship between the two clauses, the verbs in both
clauses can be in any tense. In (86), both clauses are in the present tense to
indicate that both events are occurring (near) simultaneously.

7.2.2 Relative clauses
Relative clauses follow the noun they modify and require the introduc-
tory subordinator ‘kie’ and a relative pronoun in situ within the relative
clause.

(87)

a. e-lune
kie
def-woman sub

ʦɑθe-to
melo
speak-3s,pres who

‘the woman who is speaking’

JESSIE SAMS

b. e-lune
kie
def-woman sub

ʃinɑ-ko
melo-mɑ
see-1s,past who-acc

‘the woman who(m) I saw’

c. e-lune

kie mɑθo-to hɑlone melo-su pɑlɑ
here

who-gen

def-woman sub be-3s,pres daughter
‘the woman whose daughter is here’

d. i-sopɑŋu kie
def-dog sub

ʃinɑ-ko
monɑ-mɑ
see-1s,past what-acc

‘the dog (that) I saw’

e. ɑ-θuloʃ
def-house sub

kie mɑlɑʃɑ-xo mɑle-hɑθ

live-1s,pres where-loc

‘the house where I live’

In all the examples in (87) all the nouns being modified by relative clauses
are the first words (i.e., ‘lune’, ‘sopɑŋu’, and ‘θuloʃ’), followed immedi-
ately by ‘kie’ and the relative clause. Within the relative clauses, the rela-
tive pronoun (i.e., ‘melo’, ‘monɑ’, ‘mɑle’) occurs where it would naturally
occur if the relative clause were a main clause (following the typical VSO
word order). While there is theoretical flexibility of word order in any
clause, relative clauses tend to follow the expected VSO order. The rela-
tive pronouns, then, inflect for the appropriate case for the relative clause.
For instance, in (87b), the relative pronoun ‘melo’ is the object of the verb
‘ʃinɑ’ in the relative clause and so is inflected with the accusative case. All
animate and volitional nouns take ‘melo’ (‘who’) as their relative pronoun;
however, all animate, non-volitional and inanimate nouns take ‘monɑ’
(‘what’), as in (87d).
The noun being modified takes the appropriate case for the main clause:

(88)

e-lune-mɑ

ʃinɑ-xo
kie
see-1s,pres def-woman-acc sub
‘I see the woman who is speaking’

ʦɑθe-to
melo
speak-3s,pres who

In (88), the noun being modified is ‘lune’ (‘woman’), which is the object
of the main verb ‘ʃinɑ’; therefore, ‘lune’ takes the accusative suffix ‘-mɑ’
while the corresponding ‘melo’ within the relative clause is the subject of
the verb ‘ʦɑθe’ and so is in the nominative case.

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

7.2.3 Nominal clauses
Like the other subordinate clauses, nominal clauses require the intro-
ductory ‘kie’.

(89)

a. sɑŋɑ-xo

kie mɑθo-to

know-1s,pres sub
‘I know that she is here’

be-3s,pres

pɑlɑ
here

b. ɑtɑxe-xo
want-1s,pres sub walk-3s,pres def-woman

peʃne-to

e-lune

kie

filoθ
to

ɑ-θuloʃ-mɑ
def-house-acc
‘I want her to walk to the house’ (lit. ‘I want that she walks
to the house’)

Most nominal clauses behave like those in (89)—they supply what some-
one knows, thinks, believes, or wants. However, some nominal clauses
can fill the role as a nominal with a copula (similar to the English ‘That
she cried is odd’ or ‘It is odd that she cried’) or as a subject (similar to the
English ‘That she cried surprised me’). Because there is no case marking
on the nominal clause, the word order for sentences with nominal clauses
is not flexible and must be VSO.

(90) ʦomiʃe-kɑ

kie ʦɑfeo-kɑ e-lexɑpone-mɑ

surprise-3s,past sub hurt-3s,past def-boy-acc
‘That she hurt the boy surprised me’

θexo-mɑ
1s-acc

As in (90), when the nominal clause acts as the subject, the verb is third-
person singular. If the word order of (90) were to be changed, it would
be unclear if ‘I’ or ‘the boy’ had been hurt and if ‘I’ or ‘the boy’ had
been surprised by her actions. With strict word order, though, it is clear
that ‘ʦɑfeokɑ elexɑponemɑ’ is working together while the ‘θexomɑ’ works
with the main verb, ‘ʦomiʃekɑ’.

7.3 Questions
There are four types of questions that can be formed in Hiuʦɑθ: yes/
no, tag, wh- (content), and clarification questions. All types of questions are
introduced by the general interrogative marker ‘ʦɑh’, but each type has a
different way of dealing with the content after the introductory ‘ʦɑh’.

JESSIE SAMS

7.3.1 Yes/No and tag questions
Yes/No questions, in syntactic form, look like declarative utterances but
are introduced by the interrogative ‘ʦɑh’:

(91)

a. ʦɑmɑno-su

remember-2s,pres
‘You remember her’
b. ʦɑh ʦɑmɑno-su

θeto-mɑ
3s-acc

remember-2s,pres

int
‘Do you remember her?’

θeto-mɑ
3s-acc

The declarative sentence in (91a) is the basis for the question in (91b)—the
only difference is the introductory interrogative marker. Questions formed
in this manner indicate that the optimal answer will either be a ‘ʃi’ (‘yes’)
or a ‘ɲi’ (‘no’).
Tag questions are similar to yes/no questions in that the structure over-
all is the same as a declarative sentence; the only difference is that for tag
questions, the sentence is followed by ‘ʦɑh ɲi’:

(92) ʦɑmɑno-su

remember-2s,pres
‘You remember her, don’t you?’

θeto-mɑ ʦɑh ɲi
no
3s-acc

int

Like yes/no questions, the optimal response is either ‘ʃi’ or ‘ɲi’.

7.3.2 Wh- (content) questions
Wh-questions are formed by adding the interrogative particle in front
of the sentence and then adding the wh-word in situ with an interrogative
prefix (this process is similar to that of relative clauses, but the pronoun, in
this case, has an interrogative prefix):

(93)

a. ʦɑh ʦɑmɑno-su

remember-2s,pres

int
‘Who(m) do you remember?’

ʦi-melo-mɑ
int-who-acc

b. ʦɑh
int
‘Where are you standing?’

ŋimɑs-su
stand-2s,pres int-where-loc

ʦi-mɑle-hɑθ

c. ʦɑh
int
‘Why is the woman going?’

neʃi-to
go-3s,pres def-woman

e-lune

ʦi-ɑko
int-why

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

As in (93a) and (93b), any pronoun that fulfills a grammatical role within
the sentence will receive the appropriate inflectional case marking. The
pronoun ‘melo’ in (93a) is the object of the verb and so is marked with the
accusative case; the pronoun ‘mɑle’ in (93b) indicates the location of the
verb and so is marked with the locative case. The ‘ɑko’ in (93c) fulfills no
grammatical role, which is why it carries no case marking. The wh-ques-
tions are sometimes referred to as content questions because the optimal
answer will fill in the “missing content” (i.e., the interrogative pronoun)
from the question.

7.3.3 Clarification questions
Clarification questions—those that are asked to clarify what was said or
heard—are formed by adding the interrogative particle ‘ʦɑh’ and an inter-
rogative prefix before the questioned entity:

(94)

a. ʦɑh ʦi-ʦɑmɑno-su

θeto-mɑ
int
int-remember-2s,pres 3s-acc
‘You remember her?’ (is that what you said?)

b. ʦɑh ʦɑmɑno-su

remember-2s,pres

int
‘You remember her?’

ʦi-θeto-mɑ
int-3s-acc

The examples in (94) demonstrate that the basic structure is one of a sen-
tence with an introductory ‘ʦɑh’ and one prefixed element within the ut-
terance to show what is being questioned. None of the elements are in-
terrogative pronouns; instead, everything is provided, but the speaker is
questioning whether she heard everything correctly, with emphasis on one
particular element. If more than one element needs to be questioned, the
speaker would say something like ‘What did you say?’ for the entire utter-
ance to be repeated rather than using a clarification question like those in
(94).

7.4 Reported speech
A direct quotation in Hiuʦɑθ indicates that the speaker is giving, as
close as possible, a direct rendering of what was originally said. Direct
speech is often used to allow the speaker to say something emphatic but
attribute it to another speaker (i.e., lay blame elsewhere).

JESSIE SAMS

(95) ʦɑθe-kɑ

e-lune

seɲe-ko

ɲɑ-kɑŋɑ

say-3s,past def-woman sing-1s,past neg-yesterday
‘The woman said, “I didn’t sing yesterday”’

The direct quotation does not have any “trigger” like a subordinate marker
to indicate that what follows is a direct quotation. Instead, the speaker’s
voice will indicate that there has been a shift in voice from that of the
reporter’s to that of the original speaker’s. The quoted speech, then, is in
the same format as it was originally; thus, the verb in the quotation indi-
cates a first-person subject even though the current speaker is saying that
someone else said those words (i.e., the direct quotation uses ‘I’ instead of
‘she’ even though it is not the current speaker who didn’t sing yesterday).
Furthermore, ‘kɑŋɑ’ (‘yesterday’) may not refer to the day before the utter-
ance in (95) was spoken. If, for instance, the woman said ‘seɲeko ɲɑkɑŋɑ’
on Monday, then ‘kɑŋɑ’ refers to Sunday. If the speaker is reporting this
statement that the woman said on a Thursday, though, ‘kɑŋɑ’ still refers to
Sunday. In other words, all tenses and references remain the same inside
the quotation even if they do not match the current status. Furthermore, if
the current speaker did not hear the original statement, the quoting verb
(in this case, ‘ʦɑθe’) would have to be marked for some form of heresy.
Direct quotations are only used to report what someone actually said, so
the construction in (95) would not be used to report what someone might
say in a given situation (in English, it is possible for someone to guess, us-
ing a direct quotation, what another speaker will say in a given context; in
Hiuʦɑθ, that conjecture is impossible with a direct quotation).

It is a great responsibility to use direct speech in Hiuʦɑθ, so most
speakers avoid it, instead using indirect speech reporting. Indirect speech
can be doubly marked for heresy, which allows the speaker distance from
the original quotation and allows the speaker to easily back out of what was
being said (by outwardly indicating that what is being given is an imperfect
rendering of the original). The double-marking of heresy can occur because
the quoting verb and the verb within the indirect quotation can be marked
for heresy, thus making it possible to say, ‘I heard that she heard X’.

(96) ʦɑθe-to

e-lune

seɲe-kɑ

ɲɑ-kɑŋɑ

say-3s,past def-woman sing-3s,past neg-yesterday
‘The woman said she didn’t sing yesterday’

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

In (96), ‘kɑŋɑ’ has to refer to the day before the entire utterance was spo-
ken; thus, the woman might have said, ‘I didn’t sing today’ on Sunday, but
if the indirect quotation is being reported on Monday, then the ‘kɑŋɑ’ is
required instead of ‘esisolɑ’ (‘today’). Furthermore, the verb in the indirect
speech is inflected for the third person to show that what is being reported
is indirectly being reported.
The example in (96) also shows that direct and indirect quotations are
structurally ambiguous—there are no outward cues to indicate that (96) is
an indirect speech act (in fact, if the woman reported that someone else
didn’t sing, then (96) could easily be interpreted as a direct speech act). The
distinction between the two is made using suprasegmental cues: intonation,
pitch shifts, and even facial gestures indicate that a speaker is “switching
voice” to portray someone else’s words.

7.5 Conjunctions and comparisons
Although subordinating conjunctions precede the clause they work
with, coordinating conjunctions have a different placement: They are suf-
fixed to the first word of the second constituent being conjoined.

(97)

a. soɲɑ-to

ɑleo
sleep-3s,pres
dem
‘That baby is sleeping and that child (over there) is playing’

hukɑʦo-to-ɑʃ
play-3s,pres-and child

leθlo ɑlɑ
dem
baby

leθelune

b. ɑʦe-ʦɑhɲiθɑ-sɑ
heresy-answer-3s,fut def-man-or def-boy-or
‘(I hear) either the man or the boy will answer’

e-xɑpone-lɑʃe e-lexɑpone-lɑʃe

In (97a), two sentences are joined by ‘ɑʃ’ (‘and’), with the ‘ɑʃ’ attaching
to the end of the first word of the second sentence (‘hukɑʦoto’). In (97b),
the ‘either … or’ relationship is expressed by attaching ‘lɑʃe’ (‘or’) to all
the constituents being considered (in this case, ‘exɑpone’ and ‘elexɑpone’).
Comparisons in Hiuʦɑθ require the comparative marker ‘ʦeŋɑ’ to be
repeated so that the word order is the following: comp adj comp standard
(where comp stands for ‘comparison marker’). That same pattern is used
when the comparison is an equal one (e.g., ‘as happy as you’) but with a
different comparative marker (‘ʦeθ’).

(98)

a. mɑθo-to

e-lune

be-3s,pres def-woman
‘The woman is older than me’

ʦeŋɑ ɑʃelɑ-teɸ ʦeŋɑ θexo-mɑ
comp old-pred comp 1s-acc

JESSIE SAMS

b. mɑθo-to

e-lelune

ʦeθ foliʦiɑ-teɸ ʦeθ

be-3s,pres def-girl as humble-pred
θesu-su
2s-gen
‘The girl is as humble as your daughter’

hɑlone-mɑ
daughter-acc

In both examples, the comparative marker appears just before the quality
being compared (‘ɑʃelɑ’ in (98a) and ‘foliʦiɑ’ in (98b)) and then again just
before the standard (‘θexo’ in (98a) and ‘hɑlone θesusu’ in (98b)). The
standard in both cases takes the accusative case (in some ways, the com-
parative markers are treated as prepositions).

In the same way, entire phrases or sentences can be compared:

(99)

a. luseŋɑ-xo

ʦeŋɑ sopɑŋu-ho-mɑ ʦeŋɑ koʃiɑ-ho-mɑ
like-1s,pres comp dog-pl-acc comp cat-pl-acc
‘I like dogs more/better than cats’
ʦeθ
like-1s,pres as
‘I like dogs as much as cats’

sopɑŋu-ho-mɑ ʦeθ
dog-pl-acc as

koʃiɑ-ho-mɑ
cat-pl-acc

b. luseŋɑ-xo

c. ʦeŋɑ hɑlɑθɑ-eme

lɑɲenɑ-mɑ ʦeŋɑ ɑtɑxe-xo

comp need-1p,incl,pres rain-acc comp want-1s,pres

menɑ-solɑ-mɑ

eθɑ-soleʃ-ɑmo
indef-day-acc adj-sun-acc
‘We need rain more than I want a sunny day’

d. ʦeθ
as

hɑlɑθɑ-eme
need-1p,incl,pres rain-acc

lɑɲenɑ-mɑ ʦeθ

ɑtɑxe-xo

as want-1s,pres

menɑ-solɑ-mɑ

eθɑ-soleʃ-ɑmo
indef-day-acc adj-sun-acc
‘We need rain as much as I want a sunny day’

When entire phrases are being compared, like in (99a-b), the constituents
being compared take the required case for the sentence. In this case, both
are required to be in the accusative because they are objects of the verb
‘luseŋɑ’. When entire clauses are being compared, like in (99c-d), the
clauses appear as they normally would after the comparative markers.

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

Chapter 8
Semantic Categories

The first subsections cover areas of lexical semantics, focusing specifi-
cally on the following types of semantic categorization: color, kinship, and
body part terminology (as well as terms that are related to those categories).
The final subsections cover areas closely tied in with culture, including di-
rection and time terminology, communication terms (including curses and
blessings), and the Xiɸɑθeho organization of the spiritual world.

8.1 Colors and nature
The color terms in Hiuʦɑθ are based on the seven colors of the rainbow
along with the colors black, white, and brown. In other words, the color
terms are based directly on the colors nature provides. Table 29 below
provides the terms for those 10 colors, as well as the words for ‘neutral’,
‘light’, and ‘dark’.

JESSIE SAMS78

red

orange

yellow

green

blue

indigo

honesθɑ

ʃenɑsθɑ

huleʃθɑ

xɑolisθɑ

xielɑsθɑ

koɲesiθɑ

violet (purple)

hɑmilɑθɑ

black

brown

white

neutral

light

dark

xeisθɑ

pɑhesθɑ

pɑisθɑ

ɲɑʦoske

pɑis

xeis

Table 29. Color terms

The word for ‘neutral’ literally translates as ‘no color’—it is used for any
colors that are not easily distinguishable (e.g., khaki, pale colors). The ad-
jectives ‘light’ and ‘dark’ provided in Table 20 are only used in conjunction
with colors; therefore, ‘dark blue’ would be ‘xielɑsθɑ xeis’. The word for
‘green’ (‘xɑolisθɑ’) provides the root for many nature terms: xao. The xao
root appears in words such as ‘xɑoli’ (‘grass’), ‘xɑoɲɑ’ (‘leaf’), ‘xɑomeθ’
(‘nature’), and ‘xɑoʃ’ (‘field’).
Color terms can be compounded for further modification. For example,
‘white’ and ‘red’ can come together as ‘pɑisθɑhonesθɑ’ (‘white red’) to ex-
press the color ‘pink’, which can then be further modified as ‘pɑisθɑhonesθɑ
pɑis’ for ‘light pink’. When color terms are compounded, the “base” col-
or goes last, so ‘huleʃθɑxɑolisθɑ’ is ‘yellow green’ (a yellowish shade of
green) while ‘xɑolisθɑhuleʃθɑ’ is ‘green yellow’ (a greenish shade of yel-
low). A mixture of black plus another color indicates the darkest shades
of that color (i.e., navy blue or forest green would be examples of such
possible compounded forms). Based on a survey of 119 word languages,
Hiuʦɑθ has a larger inventory of basic color terms (with an inventory of
10) than average (Kay and Maffi, WALS Chapter 133).

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ8.2 Kinship terms and family names
Because the Xiɸɑθeho are all women, there are more kinship terms for
females than males; however, for both genders, there are basic terms for
relationships:

woman/man

lune/xɑpone

wife/husband

luneɑ/xɑponeo

mother/father mɑθɑne/pɑθɑne

daughter/son

hɑlone/xɑlone

sister/brother

ʃuθɑno/fɑθɑno

Table 30. Female/Male kinship terms

The words for ‘wife’ and ‘husband’ are directly related to the terms for
‘woman’ and ‘man’—in fact, both terms were added solely to express the
human relationships within the immediate family. The terms for ‘mother/
father’ and ‘sister/brother’ are indirectly related to other Indo-European
kinship terms (e.g., Latin ‘mater/pater’, ‘soror/frater’). For women, the fol-
lowing extended family terms exist:

great-grandmother

hilɑθone

grandmother

lɑθone

granddaughter

lehɑlone

great-granddaughter hɑleɑ

Table 31. Extended female terms

The terms in Table 31 along with ‘mother’ and ‘daughter’ from Table 30
cover all the familial relationships of the Xiɸɑθeho families. If the Xiɸɑθeho
need to reference a relationship for which they do not have a word, they
simply rely on the term ‘θɑne’, which translates best as ‘relative’.
Xiɸɑθeho have first names but no middle or last (i.e., family) names.
Instead, they are identified as a member of one of the 12 families based
on their Xiɸɑθ (‘Gift’). Each family has a unique Xiɸɑθ that only their
family members have, and each family determines their own traditions for
coming up with names. For instance, the royal family has the Xiɸɑθ of

JESSIE SAMS80

protecting, so they are known as the Xiʃileteθeho (‘Protectors’) as a family,
and their unique naming tradition is that when a new daughter is born, her
mother uses part of her own mother’s name along with part of her great-
grandmother’s name for her daughter. As a specific example, one Protector
has a great-grandmother whose name is Loʃɑne and a mother whose name
is Selɑθe; when her daughter was born, she named her daughter Lolɑθe
(the ‘lo’ from Loʃɑne and the ‘lɑθe’ from Selɑθe). Some families recycle
whole names, passing names down among the generations, while others use
more complex systems to create names for daughters. If someone wanted to
specify who they were speaking about, they would use the first name alone
with the identifying family names: ‘Heθxiʃileteθe Loʃɑne’ (lit. ‘prop-gift-
protector Loʃɑne’ or ‘the Protector Loʃɑne’).

8.3 Body parts and human terms
Hiuʦɑθ distinguishes among the following major body parts:

body

head

neck

eʦɑf

kɑθɑ

onise

chest/breast

setilo

belly/stomach miɑte

back

butt/hips

θɑhilo

tuɑʃmu

arm

wrist

hand

leg

ankle

foot

ʦeʃɑ

meɑs

ɲusɑ

sɑox

xeɑh

petɑs

Table 32. Body parts

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ81

As indicated in Table 32, Hiuʦɑθ has separate words for ‘arm’, ‘wrist’, and
‘hand’, but they do not have distinct words for ‘elbow’ or ‘shoulder’. In
the same way, there are words for ‘leg’, ‘ankle’, and ‘foot’ but no distinct
words for ‘hip’ (it is shared with ‘butt’) or ‘knee’. Having distinct words
for ‘hand’ and ‘arm’ places Hiuʦɑθ in the majority of world languages,
as roughly 63% of world languages make that distinction (Brown, WALS
chapter 129). However, there is no distinct term for ‘finger’ (instead,
‘leɲusɑ’, or ‘little hand’ with stress on the ‘le’ to show its compounded
form is used), placing Hiuʦɑθ in the minority of world languages along
with roughly 14% of world languages (Brown, WALS Chapter 130).
The Xiɸɑθeho have physical bodies that look, on the outside, the same
as human bodies; however, their bodies do not have the same internal re-
quirements or functions as human bodies. For instance, the Xiɸɑθeho do
not need to eat or drink for nourishment. They do, however, have words
for these activities, as they have, over time, incorporated cooking, eating,
and drinking into ceremonies and, in some cases, into daily rituals. When
the Xiɸɑθeho refer to ‘xeso’ (‘food’), they are often referring to something
prepared ceremoniously for one of their rituals. Likewise, when they use
‘ɑŋelɑ’ (‘to cook’), it carries a deeper meaning than simply ‘to prepare
food’—the term indicates that preparation for a ceremony or ritual is under-
way. Furthermore, the terms ‘time’ (‘to drink’) and ‘komɑʃ’ (‘to eat’) indi-
cate a depth of communion since eating and drinking are activities done to-
gether for a deeper purpose than nourishing the physical body. These same
Furthermore,
terms, when applied to humans, lose their significance.
the Xiɸɑθeho do not write their language down, yet they have words for
‘book’ (‘ʦɑmeʃpoθu’), ‘letter’ (‘ʦɑmɑspoθu’), ‘paper’ (‘leʦɑmeʃpoθu’),
and ‘pen’ (‘ʦɑmeɑθ’) as they do speak about how humans communi-
cate. Because the Xiɸɑθeho can send messages to each other in “written”
thought form, their words for writing (‘ʦɑme’) and reading (‘kɑʦɑme’)
mean something slightly different when referring to Xiɸɑθeho than when
referring to humans.

8.4 Directions and time
The Xiɸɑθeho recognize the four directions many Indo-European lan-
guages recognize (north, east, south, west), but they further recognize two
more directions, best translated as ‘up’ and ‘down’ (i.e., up toward the
heavens and down below the earth).

JESSIE SAMS82

north

noliθ

east

hiʦɑθ

south

soliθ

west

toθmeθ

xieɸoθ

down

tofɑhɑθ

Table 33. Directions

The terms for ‘east’ and ‘west’ are related to the sun’s activities in those
directions: ‘hiʦɑθ’ is related to ‘hiʦɑ’ (‘to rise’), and ‘toθmeθ’ is related to
‘toθme’ (‘to set’). The term for the upward direction, ‘xieɸoθ’, is directly
related to ‘xieɸo’, the word for ‘sky’ or ‘heavens’. These six directions
play important roles in the daily rituals of the Xiɸɑθeho, as the morning
rituals primarily acknowledge the east and request blessings for the coming
day, daytime rituals tend to acknowledge the upward direction and request
spiritual guidance, and evening rituals primarily acknowledge the west and
request guidance during the hours of darkness. Any nighttime rituals are
personal rituals and often acknowledge all six directions for pulling the
most support from the universe during the dark hours.
The Xiɸɑθeho do not mark time as the majority of Indo-European lan-
guages do. For day-to-day awareness, they break the days into four major
events: ‘ɲimɑŋɑ’ (‘dawn’—pre-dawn and rising of the sun), ‘solɑ’ (‘day’—
sun is out in full even if it is hidden by clouds), ‘nuʦume’ (‘evening’—twi-
light and setting of the sun), and ‘nuθne’ (‘night’—the dark hours, the hours
of the moon). Their seasons roughly correspond to the seasons of Western
cultures; however, they do not have strict dates for seasons to begin. In-
stead, when the leaves start changing colors, it is ‘ʦoskeeɲosθo’ (‘color
season’); when the leaves have all fallen and there is frost in the mornings,
it is ‘sɑnɑloeɲosθo’ (‘snow season’); when it begins getting warmer and
buds appear, it is ‘ɸiθeniθueɲosθo’ (‘bloom season’); when the weather
gets hot and remains hot, it is ‘soleʃeɲosθo’ (‘sun season’). One day they
might say it is ‘ɸiθeniθueɲosθo’, but the next might bring a cold snap, so
they could call it ‘sɑnɑloeɲosθo’. Seasons do not have hard-and-true begin-
nings and ends.
They also do not divide their calendar into individual years; instead,
they rely on an 84-year cycle, broken into 21-year increments. Roughly

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ83

every 7670 days, a new ‘mɑlɑɲelo’ (‘life cycle’) begins, in which every
30 days a family says goodbye to its eldest member and welcomes a new
infant. There are 12 families of Xiɸɑθeho, so within 12 months, the oldest
‘eɲosθɑnɑ’ (‘generation’) is gone, and a new one has begun. No Xiɸɑθe
lives longer than 84 years, and every Xiɸɑθe becomes a mother at 21. This
21-year cycle also determines honorifics and their societal hierarchical sys-
tem, which will be further discussed in the pragmatics section. Their time
divisions also determine their “sacred” numbers: The number 4 is their
“lucky” number—when things come in fours, it is a sign of good fortune—
and the numbers 12 and 21 are sacred numbers—their true names can only
be used in conjunction with life cycles and the Xiɸɑθeho families.

Individual months are only recognized only once every 21 years; how-
ever, the Xiɸɑθeho use their month names to indicate the passing of time
according to the humans they most closely deal with (i.e., Americans/Indo-
European cultures). The months of the year are named after the family the
month is associated with, compounded with the word for ‘month’:

month

luθmes

January

Make

xinisliluθmes

February

Destroy

xioŋefʦuluθmes

March

April

May

June

July

August

Provide

xieʃtɑluθmes

Heal

xixilɑʦɑluθmes

Interpret

xiʦɑθemeoluθmes

Protect

xiʃileteluθmes

See

Find

xiʃinɑluθmes

xiʃinɑʃoluθɑluθmes

September Mediate

ximiʦɑθeluθmes

October

Keep

xiokesɑluθmes

November Block

xiɑʃθeŋɑluθmes

December Move

ximoɸuleluθmes

Table 34. Months

JESSIE SAMS
84

Alternatively, all the months can also be called ‘month of the X’; for exam-
ple, July is either ‘xiʃinɑluθmes’ as it is in Table 34 or ‘luθmes xiʃinɑθehosu’
(‘month of the Seers’). Generally speaking, the names in Table 25 are
used to indicate human passing of time while the longer, fuller names (i.e.,
the “pure” forms) are used to indicate the 12 months that initiate a new
mɑlɑɲelo (‘life cycle’). When speaking of human months, the introductory
‘xi’ can be dropped so that July could be either ‘xiʃinɑluθmes’ or simply
‘ʃinɑluθmes’. Because the month names are directly related to the Xiɸɑθho
(‘Gifts’), Table 34 also provides the 12 Xiɸɑθho. The two that can be con-
fused, especially for English speakers, are ‘xiʦɑθemeo’ and ‘ximiʦɑθe’.
The Xiɸɑθ ‘xiʦɑθemeo’ can be translated either as ‘to Interpret’ or ‘to
Communicate’, which is in opposition to ‘ximiʦɑθe’ (‘to Mediate’ or ‘to
Communicate’). The Xiʦɑθemeoθeho (‘Interpreters’) are able to use their
Xiɸɑθ to allow any two people, regardless of age, language, or mental dis-
ability, to fully communicate with one another while the Ximiʦɑθeθeho
(‘Mediators’) allow any two people to find common ground, regardless of
any prior arguments or disagreements. Both terms can be translated with
the English ‘to communicate’, but their meanings are distinct in Hiuʦɑθ.

8.5 Communication terminology
One of the most robust semantic categories of Hiuʦɑθ words are those
that fall into the communication category; words in the communication
category share the root tsa. Examples of these categorical members are
communication verbs, some of which are presented in Table 35.

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθanswer

ask

call

command, order

deliver (rel. to ‘say’, ‘carry’)

draw

interpret, communicate, translate

lie (accidental; e.g., telling a non-truth because
unaware of the full story)

lie (intentional) (lit. ‘say false’)

lie by withholding information

mediate, communicate

pray, beseech

read

record (keep track)

remember

say, speak, tell

shout; (+DAT) shout to/at; (ditransitive) shout X
(to/at Y)

ʦɑhɲiθɑ

ʦɑhɲe

ʦɑθhe

ʦɑhlome

ʦɑfimɑ

ʦɑuɲe

ʦɑθemeo

ʦɑθefɑh

ʦɑθefɑhote

ʦɑθefɑhno

miʦɑθe

ʦɑhɲemɑ

kɑʦɑme

ʦɑmelo

ʦɑmɑno

ʦɑθe

ʦɑhɑθe

speak out of turn, say wrong thing at the wrong
time (lit. ‘fast speak’)

ʦɑʦio

write

ʦɑme

Table 35. Communication verbs

Some of the communication verbs are more typically associated with oral
communication (e.g., ‘ʦɑθe’, ‘ʦɑhɲemɑ’), and others are more typically as-
sociated with written communication (e.g., ‘ʦɑme’, ‘ʦɑmelo’). Most (if not
all), however, can be applied to either type of communication. For instance,
a person could answer a question (‘ʦɑhɲiθɑ’) orally or in written form (a
human would write with pen and paper, a Xiɸɑθe with thoughts).

JESSIE SAMS86

The three forms for ‘to lie’ in Hiuʦɑθ are indicative of the value placed
on truth and knowing intentions of anyone who violates the truth. For the
Xiɸɑθeho, volition is the dividing line between animate beings with souls
and animate beings without souls (which will be discussed further in the
next section), so understanding how a person chooses to use her volition is
key in understanding that person. Many dichotomies exist in Hiuʦɑθ that
reflect the volition of the person in question.

root of a problem (bad seed, bad apple); implies
non-volitional or accidental (lit. ‘false tree’)

fɑhotetɑɸihɑ

root of a problem (bad seed, bad apple); implies
volitional or purposeful (lit. ‘false tree’)

oθefɑhotetɑɸihɑ

imposter; implies non-volitional or accidental (lit.
‘false flower’)

fɑhoteɸiθe

imposter; implies volitional or purposeful (lit. ‘false
flower’)

oθefɑhoteɸiθe

Table 36. Volition dichotomies

Table 36 presents two sets of terms that reflect how the person in question
used her volition. The non-volitional or accidental examples (‘fɑhotetɑɸihɑ’
and ‘fɑhoteɸiθe’) imply that the person in question is, without a doubt, ei-
ther the root of the problem or an imposter; however, it is highly likely that
the person does not know she is a problem. On the other hand, a person
who willfully plays those same roles deserves a name that reflects that vo-
litional status. The Xiɸɑθeho are very sensitive to these dichotomies and
(try to) use the volitional terms only in the most extreme cases and only in
the most obvious cases (i.e., it is a major social faux pas to use the more
extreme version if the speaker doubts—at any level—that the person in
question acted with volition).
There are several ways to express blessings and curses in Hiuʦɑθ.
Blessings and curses are only permissible if speaking to a peer or a younger
person. It is rude for a younger person to bless or curse an elder—blessings
and curses alike indicate that the speaker has attained a social status that al-
lows her to make such a statement. So even a blessing can be unacceptable
if the speaker is in a younger generation than the audience. For this reason,
all blessings and curses utilize the informal pronouns and verb agreements.
Set examples of blessings are more difficult to provide because many bless-

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ87

ings are unique to families and/or to specific rituals; therefore, only the
ones who perform the rituals know the blessings. However, there are a few
that are documented examples of blessings:

(100) a. luxakadito tabiha desusu luletotoAs letabihahoma baleAmo

luxɑkɑθito tɑɸihɑ θesusu luletotoɑʃ letɑɸihɑhomɑ ɸɑleɑmo
‘may your tree grow and have four branches’

b. lumadosa Axibad hiUceteb

lumɑθosɑ ɑxiɸɑθ hiuʦeteɸ
‘may your Gift be superior’

c. lubalecinacoludasu sogadale

luɸɑleʃinɑʃoluθɑsu soŋɑθɑle
‘may you always be lucky’ (lit. ‘may you always find four’)

The Xiɸɑθeho often rely on the metaphorical image that their lives are
trees—their roots are how they choose to grow and receive nourishment
while their branches are how they choose to share their lives. The blessing
in (100a) relies on that metaphor and also relates to the lucky number four
(‘ɸɑle’); that blessing might also be translated as ‘may your life be strong
and blessed’. The blessing in (100b) is something a mother might say to
her daughter or a grandmother to her granddaughter—this type of blessing
would never be said to a Xiɸɑθe outside of the family (no family member
wants a Xiɸɑθe outside their family to have a superior Xiɸɑθ). Finally, the
blessing in (100c) is the most typical example of a blessing in Hiuʦɑθ.
The curses are a bit more well documented and publicly accessible than
blessings.

(101) a. luletoto tabiha desusu letabihahoma deleAmo

luletoto tɑɸihɑ θesusu letɑɸihɑhomɑ θeleɑmo
‘may your tree have three branches’
b. luletoto tabiha desusu letabihahoma bibluAmo

luletoto tɑɸihɑ θesusu letɑɸihɑhomɑ ɸiɸluɑmo
‘may your tree have five branches’

c. lukucteAsaU Axibadma
lukuʃteɑsɑu ɑxiɸɑθmɑ
‘may you lose your Gift’
d. lumadosa Axibad UcefaEteb

lumɑθosɑ ɑxiɸɑθ uʦefɑeteɸ
‘may your Gift be inferior’

JESSIE SAMS

e. lumadosaU xepoteb

lumɑθosɑu xepoteɸ
‘may you be outside’ (i.e., ‘abnormal’)

f. lucadefahoteto Ehalone

luʦɑθefɑhoteto ehɑlone
‘may your daughter intentionally lie’

g. luxicosa Edolita monemidkelis

luxiʦosɑ eθolitɑ monemiθkelis
‘may your soul become a spirit’

h. luxicosa Edolita monegaxoco

luxiʦosɑ eθolitɑ moneŋɑxoʦo
‘may your soul become a demon’

The curses in (101a-b) differ only in the number of branches that the meta-
phorical tree bears; cursing someone to only have three branches is like
saying, ‘I hope you always feel you are missing something’, and cursing
someone to have five branches is like saying, ‘I hope you live in paranoia
that something needs to be destroyed’. The curses in (101c-d) are extreme
curses, with (101c) being the stronger of the two. The Xiɸɑθho (‘Gifts’)
are like sacred grounds for the Xiɸɑθeho and so cursing another’s Xiɸɑθ is
basically like condemning her to die. The curse in (101e) reflects the fear
the Xiɸɑθeho have of being different or outside the norm, and the curse in
(101f) reflects the weight they place on having the people around them tell
the truth (especially family members). Finally, the curses in (105g-h) re-
flect their spiritual beliefs, which will be outlined in the next section. Both
curses are like saying, ‘may you always be in a state of unrest—even after
death’.
The examples provided in (100) and (101) highlight another feature
of Hiuʦɑθ: The possessive pronoun can be dropped if the pronoun is un-
derstood. In many of the blessings and curses, ‘θesusu’ (the genitive form
of ‘you’) does not appear but is instead replaced with the definite article.
For example, in (100b), ‘ɑxiɸɑθ’ is translated as ‘your Gift’ even though
‘θesusu’ does not appear in the utterance. The recipient of blessings and
curses are clearly understood, as they are delivered directly to the recipient,
thus making the possessive pronoun unnecessary.

8.6 Spiritual world
The Xiɸɑθeho believe that each animate being with volition has a θolitɑ
(‘soul’) and a specific mɑlɑʃlox (‘purpose’) in life. If, during mɑlɑʃɑiθo

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

(‘life’—a person’s life from beginning to end), the θolitɑ realizes and ful-
fills its mɑlɑʃlox, it will be released from the eʦɑf (‘physical body’) and
join the Kɑŋimeθe (‘Creator’) and other fulfilled θolitɑho as a part of the
hiispoxɑ (‘universe’). If, however, the θolitɑ does not fulfill its mɑlɑʃlox
during its time in hɑispo (‘earth, world, planet’), the θolitɑ will become
one of two things: (1) it could become a miθkelis (‘spirit’), which has no
form and is trapped in hɑispo, being forced to roam alongside with the liv-
ing but without being able to take a shape and fulfill a mɑlɑʃlox; or (2) it
could become a ŋɑxoʦo (‘demon’), which also has no form but can inhabit
the bodies of the living. The ŋɑxoʦoho are viewed as parasites even if
they are “good” ŋɑxoʦoho, so the fate of being condemned as a ŋɑxoʦo is
viewed as a worse fate than becoming a miθkelis. Both the miθkelisho and
ŋɑxoʦoho can be positive or negative forces in hɑispo.
Opposite to the Kɑŋimeθe is the Fɑhɑʃθe (‘devil’), which is an evil be-
ing striving to thwart the θolitɑho from realizing their mɑlɑʃlox (and thus
causing the θolitɑho to become either miθkelisho or ŋɑxoʦoho). Both the
Kɑŋimeθe and Fɑhɑʃθe have ʦɑfimɑθeho (‘messengers, angels’) who can
deliver messages from them to the θolitɑho still encased in living beings.
While animals and plants are viewed as animate and have mɑlɑxe (‘life’),
they do not have θolitɑho; instead, they remain a part of the hiispoxɑ (as
a type of reincarnation) because without volition, they cannot do right or
wrong.
According to their ifepɑiθoho (‘beliefs’), siɸestoiθo (‘death’) is not
something to fear but is rather something to be prepared for. The Xiɸɑθeho
try to live their lives preparing for the release of their θolitɑho through dai-
ly xuliʦɑʃeho (‘rituals’) that honor the Kɑŋimeθe, hiispoxɑ, ɑθɑke (‘greater
good’), mɑlɑxe, and mɑlɑʃlox. Their xuliʦɑʃeho also often show deference
to the fɑhoʦu (‘evil’) that exists in hɑispo to show that they are not ignor-
ing it but are instead choosing to honor ɑθɑke. How those xuliʦɑʃeho are
done depends on individuals and their families. Most families have at least
three xuliʦɑʃeho a day: ɲixes (‘morning ceremony’), mexes (‘midday cer-
emony’), and nuxes (‘evening ceremony’).
The Xiɸɑθeho distinguish among ifepɑiθoloɸos (‘religion’), xɑifepɑiθo
(‘organized religion’), and oɸɑθeolisiθo (‘spirituality’). For them, the
strongest of the three is oɸɑθeolisiθo—it represents an awareness of the
Kɑŋimeθe and hiispoxɑ that the others do not. They view ifepɑiθoloɸos
as an individual seeking to understand reason within the hiispoxɑ and
xɑifepɑiθo as a group of individuals seeking to put order into the hiispoxɑ.
While they have no qualms with either type, they do not view the humans

JESSIE SAMS90

who follow those principles as enlightened beings. Xiɸɑθeho are born with
oɸɑθeolisiθo (an awareness of the spiritual realm), but most humans re-
main ignorant of the spiritual realm, focusing instead on their own under-
standing of the hiispoxɑ rather than letting the hiispoxɑ speak to them.
The Xiɸɑθeho look down on humans because humans are not blessed with
oɸɑθeolisiθo from birth.
Although the spiritual beliefs of the Xiɸɑθeho are set up to promote
unity, they often promote fear instead. The word for ‘different’ (‘fɑhɑle’) in
Hiuʦɑθ is based on the same root as the word for ‘evil’ (‘fɑhoʦu’), reflect-
ing the Xiɸɑθeho ifepɑiθoho (‘beleifs’) that differences should be feared
rather than celebrated or even accepted. Those who are different would be
cast out from their society—those xepoleθɑθeho (‘outcasts’) would no lon-
ger be welcome among the Xiɸɑθeho. Fear of becoming a xepoleθɑθeho is
so great that the Xiɸɑθeho diligently work at fitting in and remaining the
same as their peers. Also based on the same root as ‘fɑhɑle’ and ‘fɑhoʦu’
is ‘fɑhote’ (‘wrong/false’). Humans who have a Xiɸɑθ are viewed as fɑhɑle
and are called ɑɸxiɸɑθeho (literally, ‘Gifted thing’, relying on the pejorative
‘ɑɸ-’). A human Xiɸɑθ is then called a fɑhotexiɸɑθ (‘false Gift’). While the
Xiɸɑθeho are content to ignore the majority of the human population, they
believe it is their mɑlɑʃlox to deplete hɑispo of these ɑɸxiɸɑθeho.

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ91

Chapter 9
Discourse Structure

Some of the most pertinent aspects of discourse in Hiuʦɑθ are polite-
ness, discourse markers and organization, and narrative structure. Politeness
is discussed in the first section, as it plays an important role for discourse as
a whole and is directly tied into the previous sections on semantics.

9.1 Politeness and social hierarchy
As previously mentioned, there are always four generations of Xiɸɑθeho,
each generation 21 years apart. These four generations determine the soci-
etal—and, thus, the politeness—hierarchy:

great-grandmothers Advisors

lɑʃetɑθeho

grandmothers

Elders

elenɑθeho

mothers

daughters

Teachers

tinofiθeho

Learners

seɸmeθeho

Table 37. Societal hierarchy

The eldest generation of Xiɸɑθeho make up the lɑʃetɑθeho (‘Advisors’),
and the second eldest generation make up the elenɑθeho (‘Elders’). These
two generations rule the Xiɸɑθeho; the elenɑθeho are responsible for
making policies and decisions that affect the Xiɸɑθeho as a whole, and
they, in turn, look to the lɑʃetɑθeho for advice on those policies and de-
cisions. The youngest two generations follow the decisions of the eldest
two generations. The tinofiθeho (‘Teachers’) spend their 21 years teaching
their daughters, the youngest generation, how to use their Xiɸɑθho. The
seɸmeθeho (‘Learners’), then, spend their first 21 years learning the ways
of the Xiɸɑθeho.
The progression of the Xiɸɑθeho follows the hierarchy in Table 28: Ev-
ery Xiɸɑθe spends 21 years at each generation level, so that by the end of
her 84 years, she has filled every role in the societal hierarchy. The hierar-
chy also determines politeness: A Xiɸɑθe uses the informal forms with any
Xiɸɑθe at her same societal level or below her level, so that all lɑʃetɑθeho

JESSIE SAMS
92

use informal forms with other Xiɸɑθeho while seɸmeθeho use informal
forms with other seɸmeθeho but formal forms with all other Xiɸɑθeho. If
the informal cannot be used with the fellow conversant, then blessings and
curses cannot be given. Furthermore, if the informal cannot be used, then
certain hedging strategies (most particularly, with expressions of doubt)
will be employed throughout the discourse to show deference to the recipi-
ent.
Combining the societal hierarchy with the strong sense of family of the
Xiɸɑθeho provides the five terms to indicate the types of obligations every
Xiɸɑθe has, which are given in Table 38:

obligation, duty (general)

ʃɑne

obligation, duty (to Colony/society)

ʃɑkone

obligation, duty (to family)

ʃɑxɑne

obligation, duty (to role/title/job)

ʃɑnɑhe

obligation, duty (to self)

ʃɑmoθene

Table 38. Levels of obligation

The general term for any type of obligation/duty is ‘ʃɑne’, which provides
the base (or, rather, outline) for the other terms. The four specific types of
obligation are listed in Table 38 and indicate the pressures of following
what is expected of the Xiɸɑθeho; the most important of those obligations
is ʃɑxɑne (‘obligation to family’), followed closely by ʃɑkone and ʃɑnɑhe
(‘obligation to society’, ‘obligation to title’). The ʃɑmoθene (‘obligation to
self’) is less evident in younger generations but becomes stronger in older
generations (who are concerned with fulfilling their mɑlɑʃlox and preparing
for siɸestoiθo).

9.2 Discourse markers and interjections

In Hiuʦɑθ, there are a variety of discourse markers and interjections to
indicate the speaker’s stance or to allow listeners the ability to show that
they are following the conversation. Table 39 below provides some the
most common discourse markers and interjections:

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ
93

cry of anger/frustration

cry of anger/strong emotion

cry of disbelief

cry of happiness/joy

okay

hoθe

fɑhoθe

fɑ

xiɲɑ

ɲi

kɑɸi

signal of thinking or comprehension hɑ

stall for time (‘um’)

well, gee, let’s see

yes

ʦɑ

ɑx

ʃi

Table 39. Discourse markers and interjections

The Hiuʦɑθ cry of anger or frustration, ‘hoθe’, is borrowed from the An-
cient Greek ‘hoi theoi’ (‘O gods!’); ‘fɑhoθe’, then, is a form meaning some-
thing like ‘bad gods’ and indicates a much stronger negative emotion than
‘hoθe’. ‘Fɑhoθe’ is one of the strongest words in Hiuʦɑθ, and a member of
a younger generation would most likely never use that word in a conver-
sation with someone from an older generation. While the cry of disbelief
is related to the root ‘FA’ (‘bad’), ‘fɑ’ does not always indicate that the
disbelief is negative. Someone could shout ‘fɑ’ upon hearing good news
that is difficult to believe (similar to ‘No!’ in English, when the speaker is
indicating disbelief to something good). These three words are the closest
examples of “swear words” or “cuss words” in Hiuʦɑθ.
The cry of happiness or joy, ‘xiɲɑ’ is often repeated three times with
the last syllable dropped (i.e., ‘xiɲɑxiɲɑxi!’). ‘Kɑɸi’ is the shortened form
of ‘kɑɸiʃne’ (‘to understand’) and indicates that the speaker is in line with
what is being said in the conversation. The sound that indicates the speaker
is stalling for time is ‘ʦɑ’, which is also the root meaning ‘say’ and can be
roughly translated into English as ‘um’.
When two or more members of the same social hierarchical status are
speaking, there are often very few pauses—these discourse markers and
interjections overlap with utterances being spoken by other participants.
However, when a member of a lower (i.e., younger) social hierarchical
status is speaking with members of a higher social hierarchical status, the

JESSIE SAMS94

younger participant waits for a pause to provide input in the form of an in-
terjection or minimal response (such as those listed in Table 30); moreover,
the younger participant often waits for a signal from the elder participants
before providing her input.

9.3 Structure: Discourse and narratives
The most common discourse structure in Hiuʦɑθ could be called a “ba-
sic” conversation and begins with the greeting ‘iʃone’ (‘hello’), which is
related to the word ‘ʃone’ (‘to begin’). Common opening couplets that im-
mediately follow the greeting to begin a conversation include the following
examples:

(102) A: ʦɑh neʃito solɑ θesusu elo
‘How’s your day going?’

B: sotimɑʃ ʦɑh θesusuɑʃ
‘Normal. And yours?’

(103) A: ʦɑh luxɑʦɑθexo θeseɑmɑ

‘May I speak with you?’

B: xeʦɑθesu

‘Speak.’

The couplet in (102) is an informal one—both speaker A and speaker B
are in the same social hierarchy. Speaker A’s opening line would still be
acceptable if speaker B were in a lower social hierarchy, but then speaker
B’s response would be inflected for formality (i.e., ‘ʦɑh θeseɑɑʃ’). The ex-
pected (or phatic, even) response is ‘sotimɑʃ’, which is an adverbial form
of ‘normal’. If the speaker wishes to express that her day is only so-so, her
response might be ‘neʃito ɑɸto’, meaning ‘It goes’ (as in, ‘my day is neither
good nor bad’). The couplet in (103) is a formal one—speaker A is in a
lower social hierarchy than speaker B. Another response speaker B might
use is simply ‘ʃi’ (‘yes’) or even ‘ɲi’ (‘no’).
The person who initiates the conversation is typically the one to close
it (unless an older participant closes it). A simple way to close a conversa-
tion is to say ‘ɑfθɑle’ (‘goodbye’); another method for ending a conversa-
tion—even if the speakers are in the middle of the conversation—is to say
‘mɑθotoɑʃ seθo’ (‘and so it is’), which is a phatic way of saying, ‘Don’t
question it’ or ‘That’s just the way it is’. The phrase is phatic because it can
be uttered without needing something questioned before it. It can occur in
conversational situations that do not flow logically with the phrase, yet it

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

can be used to show that the conversation is finished.
Other common couplets in Hiuʦɑθ conversation include the following:

(104) a. xɑmotɑheθɑ

‘please’ (lit. ‘with hope’)

b. nɑʦulix

‘of course’

(105) a. θɑkinuiθoho

‘thank you’ (nom. of ‘thank’)

b. sɑftunelih

‘you’re welcome’ (lit. ‘accepted’)

(106) a. mɑθoko fɑhote

‘I’m sorry’ or ‘I was wrong’

b. sɑftunexo
‘I accept’

The first two sets in (104) and (105) are politeness strategies that would be
used among Xiɸɑθeho of all ages. The set in (106) provides an example of
apologizing in Hiuʦɑθ.

Stories, all of which are oral in Hiuʦɑθ, are often short and have a
moral to it; the moral is the opening and closing line for the story and is
generally a short line that teaches young Xiɸɑθeho to follow the rules and
to discover and remember their mɑlɑʃlox. An example of such a story is
repeated below, first in Hiuʦɑθ and then translated into English (for a full
morphological description of the story, see Appendix II):

madoto monexibade kiE Ataxeto melo kiE madoto fahaleteb monejexibade.
Asajaka monexibade kiE madoka zega Uze zega Exibadehoma dasiAmo
UlefcinakaAc AmobuleIdo Isolecsu xaOtabhad EjekonilahadAno.
xaladaka IxaOmedxa EjexadanexaAno. gaxamelikaAc Acakonehoma.
pecneka menajimaga filod IxaOtabhad meOckaAc zuco Itabihahad.
zahjeka kiE taxazadeto Itabiha detoma. zahjemaka kiE taxazadeto detoma. zadeka:
kabicneto jede dexoma sagaxoAno kiE kabicnesaU. mobuleka Itabiha filod
detoma gazadekaAno. zadeka: lacaso menaAbdema kiE dalu taxazadexo desuma.
helecaka Itabiha Aletabihahoma OsedmekaAc Elelunema UzesiOle
UzesiOleAc kiEfilodo Izimagika Amalacloxma detolof. AtekaAc
Ebesta soIdne Elelune kiE zadeka Itabiha: xazade menitabihama hasana xizosu
de.

JESSIE SAMS

xizokata petasho Elelunesu malacho meholekata sulo Ihapadma. xizokata
AsaOxho moneteb xizokaAc ApeA pahe. xizokata Azecaho AjusahoAc
letabihaho. cinaka Ebesta Emadanema gadaluAno xazadeka detoma xamelikalace
detoma filod Adulocma. daleka Amalajelo noI letokaAno jehalonema. caOsaka
Itabiha soEdasola kiEAniso lofadneka Exadanema kiE xizoka tecliIspole
IxaOtabsu.
madoto monexibade kiE Ataxeto melo kiE madoto fahaleteb monejexibade.

mɑθoto monexiɸɑθe kie ɑtɑxeto melo kie mɑθoto fɑhɑleteɸ
moneɲexiɸɑθe.

ɑsɑɲɑkɑ monexiɸɑθe kie mɑθokɑ ʦeŋɑ uʦe ʦeŋɑ exiɸɑθehomɑ
xɑotɑɸhɑθ
ɑmoɸuleiθo
eɲexɑθɑnexɑɑno.

ulefʃinɑkɑɑʃ

ixɑomeθxɑ

xɑlɑθɑkɑ

isoleʃsu

θɑʃiɑmo
eɲekonilɑhɑθɑno.
ŋɑxɑmelikɑɑʃ ɑʃɑkonehomɑ.

peʃnekɑ menɑɲimɑŋɑ filoθ

ixɑotɑɸhɑθ meoʃkɑɑʃ ʦuʃo
itɑɸihɑhɑθ. ʦɑhɲekɑ kie tɑxɑʦɑθeto itɑɸihɑ θetomɑ. ʦɑhɲemɑkɑ
kie tɑxɑʦɑθeto θetomɑ. ʦɑθekɑ: kɑɸiʃneto ɲeθe θexomɑ sɑŋɑxoɑno
kie kɑɸiʃnesɑu. moɸulekɑ itɑɸihɑ filoθ θetomɑ ŋɑʦɑθekɑɑno.
ʦɑθekɑ: lɑʃɑso menɑɑɸθemɑ kie θɑlu tɑxɑʦɑθexo θesumɑ.

heleʃɑkɑ itɑɸihɑ ɑletɑɸihɑhomɑ oseθmekɑɑʃ elelunemɑ uʦesiole
uʦesioleɑʃ kiefiloθo iʦimɑŋikɑ ɑmɑlɑʃloxmɑ θetolof. ɑtekɑɑʃ
eɸestɑ soiθne elelune kie ʦɑθekɑ itɑɸihɑ: xɑʦɑθe menitɑɸihɑmɑ
hɑsɑnɑ xiʦosu θe.

xiʦokɑtɑ petɑsho elelunesu mɑlɑʃho meholekɑtɑ sulo ihɑpɑθmɑ.
xiʦokɑtɑ ɑsɑoxho moneteɸ xiʦokɑɑʃ ɑpeɑ pɑhe. xiʦokɑtɑ ɑʦeʃɑho
ɑɲusɑhoɑʃ letɑɸihɑho. ʃinɑkɑ eɸestɑ emɑθɑnemɑ ŋɑθɑluɑno
xɑʦɑθekɑ θetomɑ xɑmelikɑlɑʃe θetomɑ filoθ ɑθuloʃmɑ. θɑlekɑ
ɑmɑlɑɲelo noi letokɑɑno ɲehɑlonemɑ. ʃɑosɑkɑ itɑɸihɑ soeθɑsolɑ
kieɑniso lofɑθnekɑ exɑθɑnemɑ kie xiʦokɑ teʃliispole ixɑotɑɸsu.
mɑθoto monexiɸɑθe kie ɑtɑxeto melo kie mɑθoto fɑhɑleteɸ
moneɲexiɸɑθe.

A Gifted who wants to be different is not a Gifted at all.
One Gifted decided that she was better than the other Gifteds
and spent her time in the forest instead of the Colony. She com-
muned with nature instead of her family. And she did not obey her
societal duties.
One morning, she walked into the forest and sat before a tree.
She asked it to speak with her. She begged it to speak with her. She

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

said, “No one understands me, but I know you will.” The tree bent
toward her but did not speak. She said, “I will do anything to be
able to speak with you.”
The tree stretched out its branches and brought the girl closer
and closer until it squeezed the mɑlɑʃlox out of her. And then the
girl clearly heard the tree say, “To speak with a tree, you must be-
come one.”
The girl’s feet turned into roots and burrowed beneath the
ground. Her legs grew together, and her skin turned to bark. Her
arms and hands turned into branches. From that day forward, she
saw her mother but could not speak with her or follow her home.
Her twenty-first birthday passed, yet she had no daughter. The tree
wept every day because she forsook her family to become a part of
the forest.
A Gifted who wants to be different is not a Gifted at all.

The morals are reusable; that is, the same moral can be used with different
stories. Likewise, the same story can be told with a different moral. For
instance, in the story above, the speaker could have focused instead on the
importance of family, providing a moral about family rather than about
wanting to be different. Many of the stories show how the Xiɸɑθeho feel
about the separation between them and nature, the separation between them
and humans, and the importance of remaining true to the Colony and other
Xiɸɑθeho.
This grammar of Hiuʦɑθ provides an overview of the language, which
also provides insights into the Xiɸɑθeho culture. The data in this gram-
mar is some of the most extensive data collected, as the Xiɸɑθeho do not
willingly provide humans with information about their language. Howev-
er, if possible, further research on everyday communications among the
Xiɸɑθeho are necessary to glean more information about the language’s
grammar and about the speakers themselves. Most humans will never see
or speak with a Xiɸɑθe, yet understanding their language and ideals is an
important first step in healing the relationship between the Xiɸɑθeho and
humans.

JESSIE SAMS98

Appendix I: Guide to IPA

Consonants
p pat, apple
t
toe
k kite
ʔ
ɸ sound made by putting two lips close together and blowing air through

sound at the begging of each vowel in uh-oh

them
f five
thin
θ
sea
s
ʃ
shoe
x sound made in German ach
h hot
ʦ cats
m mom
n night
ɲ most similar to the sound in onion; Spanish piña
ŋ sing
let
l

Vowels
ɑ
father
e eight
ɛ met
i
elite
ɪ pit
o ode
ɔ dawn
u assume
ʊ put

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ
99

Appendix II: Morpheme analysis of
Hiuʦɑθ story

mɑθo-to mone-xiɸɑθe kie
be-3s,pres indef-Gifted sub want-3s,pres who

melo kie mɑθo-to
be-3s,pres
sub

ɑtɑxe-to

fɑhɑle-teɸ mone-ɲe-xiɸɑθe.
different-pred indef-neg-Gifted
‘A Gifted who wants to be different is not a Gifted at all.’

ɑsɑɲɑ-kɑ mone-xiɸɑθe kie mɑθo-kɑ ʦeŋɑ uʦe ʦeŋɑ
think-3s,past indef-Gifted sub

be-3s,past comp better comp

e-xiɸɑθe-ho-mɑ θɑʃi-ɑmo ulefʃinɑ-kɑ-ɑʃ
def-Gifted-pl-acc other-acc watch-3s,past-and def-move-nom

ɑ-moɸule-iθo

xɑotɑɸ-hɑθ e-ɲe-konilɑ-hɑθ-ɑno.

i-soleʃ-su
def-sun-gen forest-loc
‘One Gifted decided that she was better than the other Gifteds and spent
her time in the forest instead of the Colony.’

def-neg-Colony-loc-but

xɑlɑθɑ-kɑ
commune-3s,past def-nature-com def-neg-family-com-but
‘She communed with nature instead of her family.’

e-ɲe-xɑθɑne-xɑ-ɑno.

i-xɑomeθ-xɑ

ŋɑ-xɑmeli-kɑ-ɑʃ
neg-follow-3s,past-and def-societal.obligation-pl-acc
‘And she did not obey her societal duties.’

ɑ-ʃɑkone-ho-mɑ.

peʃne-kɑ menɑ-ɲimɑŋɑ filoθ
walk-3s,past

indef-morning into

i-xɑotɑɸ-hɑθ meoʃ-kɑ-ɑʃ ʦuʃo
def-forest-loc sit-3s,past-and before

i-tɑɸihɑ-hɑθ.
def-tree-loc
‘One morning, she walked into the forest and sat before a tree.’

JESSIE SAMS

100

kie
ʦɑhɲe-kɑ
ask-3s,past
sub
‘She asked it to speak with her.’

tɑ-xɑʦɑθe-to
subj-speak.with-3s,pres def-tree

i-tɑɸihɑ θeto-mɑ.

3s-acc

ʦɑhɲemɑ-kɑ kie
pray-3s,past sub
‘She begged it to speak with her.’

tɑ-xɑʦɑθe-to
subj-speak.with-3s,pres 3s-acc

θeto-mɑ.

ʦɑθe-kɑ:
say-3s,past

kɑɸiʃne-to
ɲe-θe
understand-3s,pres neg-one

θexomɑ sɑŋɑ-xo-ɑno
1s-acc

know-1s,pres-but

kɑɸiʃnesɑu.
understand-2s,pres

kie
sub
‘She said, “No one understands me, but I know you will.”’

i-tɑɸihɑ filoθ θeto-mɑ ŋɑ-ʦɑθe-kɑ-ɑno.

moɸule-kɑ
move-3s,past def-tree
‘The tree bent toward her but did not speak.’

toward 3s-acc

neg-speak-3s,past-but

ʦɑθe-kɑ:
say-3s,past

lɑʃɑ-so menɑ-ɑɸθe-mɑ kie
do-1s,fut indef-thing-acc sub

θɑlu
can

tɑ-xɑʦɑθe-xo
subj-speak.with-1s,pres 2s-acc
‘She said, “I will do anything to be able to speak with you.”’

θesu-mɑ.

heleʃɑ-kɑ
i-tɑɸihɑ ɑ-letɑɸihɑ-ho-mɑ
push-3s,past def-tree def-branch-pl-acc

oseθme-kɑ-ɑʃ
pull-3s,past-and

e-lelune-mɑ uʦe-siole uʦe-siole-ɑʃ
def-girl-acc comp-close comp-close-and

kie-filoθo iʦimɑŋi-kɑ
sub-until squeeze-3s,past

θeto-lof.

ɑ-mɑlɑʃlox-mɑ
def-life.purpose-acc 3s-abl
‘The tree stretched out its branches and brought the girl closer and closer
until it squeezed the mɑlɑʃlox out of her.’

ɑte-kɑ-ɑʃ
hear-3s,past-and after.that adv-easy def-girl

e-lelune kie ʦɑθe-kɑ
sub

so-iθne

eɸestɑ

say-3s,past

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

i-tɑɸihɑ: xɑʦɑθe
def-tree

meni-tɑɸihɑ-mɑ hɑsɑnɑ

speak.with,inf indef-tree-acc must

101

xiʦo-su
become-2s,pres

θe.
one
‘And then the girl clearly heard the tree say, “To speak with a tree, you
must become one.”’

xiʦo-kɑtɑ
become-3p,past

petɑs-ho e-lelune-su mɑlɑʃ-ho meholekɑtɑ
dig-3p,past
foot-pl

def-girl-gen

root-pl

i-hɑpɑθ-mɑ.

sulo
beneath def-ground-acc
‘The girl’s feet turned into roots and burrowed beneath the ground.’

xiʦo-kɑtɑ
ɑ-sɑox-ho mone-teɸ xiʦo-kɑ-ɑʃ
become-3p,past def-leg-pl one-pred become-3s,past-and def-skin

ɑ-peɑ

pɑhe.
bark
‘Her legs grew together, and her skin turned to bark.’

xiʦo-kɑtɑ
ɑ-ʦeʃɑ-ho
become-3p,past def-arm-pl
‘Her arms and hands turned into branches.’

ɑ-ɲusɑ-ho-ɑʃ
def-hand-pl-and branch-pl

letɑɸihɑ-ho.

ʃinɑ-kɑ
see-3s,past after.that def-mother-acc neg-can-but

e-mɑθɑne-mɑ

eɸestɑ

ŋɑ-θɑlu-ɑno xɑʦɑθe-kɑ

speak-3s,past

θeto-mɑ xɑmeli-kɑ-lɑʃe
3s-acc
‘From that day forward, she saw her mother but could not speak with her
or follow her home.’

θeto-mɑ filoθ ɑ-θuloʃ-mɑ.

follow-3s,past-or 3s-acc

def-house-acc

ɑ-mɑlɑɲelo noi
θɑle-kɑ
end-3s,past def-life.cycle first
‘Her twenty-first birthday passed, yet she had no daughter.’

leto-kɑ-ɑno
have-3s,past-but neg-daughter-acc

ɲe-hɑlone-mɑ.

ʃɑ-osɑ-kɑ
i-tɑɸihɑ so-eθɑsolɑ
habit-weep-3s,past def-tree adv-daily

kie-ɑniso
sub-because

JESSIE SAMS

102

lofɑθne-kɑ
e-xɑθɑne-mɑ
leave-3s,past def-family-acc

kie
sub

xiʦo-kɑ
become-3s,past

teʃliispole
part

i-xɑotɑɸ-su.
def-forest-gen
‘The tree has wept every day because she forsook her family to become a
part of the forest.’

mɑθo-to mone-xiɸɑθe kie
be-3s,pres indef-Gifted sub want-3s,pres who

melo kie mɑθo-to
sub

ɑtɑxe-to

be-3s,pres

fɑhɑle-teɸ mone-ɲe-xiɸɑθe.
different-pred indef-neg-Gifted
‘A Gifted who wants to be different is not a Gifted at all.’

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

103

Appendix III: Grammar Cheat
Sheets

Personal pronouns

Singular

Plural

Informal

Formal

Informal

Formal

First

θexo

θeeme (incl.)

θesu

θeseɑ

θeome
(excl.)

θeume

θesutɑ

θeto (vol.)

θeleɑ

θeɑtɑ (vol.)

θelutɑ

Second

Third

ʦito (no
vol.)

ɑɸto (inani.)

tiɑtɑ (no
vol.)

ɑɸɑtɑ
(inani.)

JESSIE SAMS104

Nominal affixes

Inflectional pre-
fixes

Interrogative

Negation

Definite deter-
miners

Indefinite deter-
miners

ʦi-

ɲe-

volitional

nonvolitional

inanimate

proper

volitional

ɑ-

(heθ-)

(mone-)

nonvolitional

(meni-)

inanimate

(menɑ-)

Derivational
prefixes

Nominal

Diminutive

Pejorative

le-

ɑɸ-

Denominal

Adjectivalize

eθɑ-

Inflectional suf-
fixes

Number

Cases

Singular

Plural

Agentive

Patientive

Genitive

Dative

Locative

Comitative

Instrumental

Ablative

Vocative

—

-ho/-o

—

-mɑ

-su

-ɸis

-hɑθ

-xɑ

-xɑɸ

-lof

-i

int-neg-det-dim-pej-noun-num-case

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ105

— (bare form)

ʦi-

ŋɑ-

Declarative

Interrogative

Imperative

nei-

Verbal affixes

Infinitive

Inflectional
prefixes

Interrogative

Negation

Voice

Mood

Subjunctive

Optative

Active

Passive

Declarative

Imperative

Hortative

Subjunctive

Optative

—

pe-

—

xe-

tɑ-

lu-

—

ni-

ɸɑ-

ʃɑ-

Aspect

Aorist/Simple

Perfect

Imperfect

Habitual

Evidentual

speaker knowledge —

heresy

heresy/reason

ɑʦe-

ɑ-

heresy/no reason

ɑne-

belief/reasoning

possibility

doubted

lo-

ʦu-

JESSIE SAMS106

Derivational
prefixes

Verbal

Derivational
suffixes

Deverbal Nominal

Adjectival

Diminutive

Gift

(‘one who’)

(‘thing used to’)

(‘thing/one that
is’)

(‘thing/one used
for’)

lei-

xi-

-iθo

-θe

-ɑθ

-lih

-lɑθ

int-neg-voice-mood-asp-evid-dim-gift-verb-tense,pers,num

Verb tense, person, number suffixes

Present

Past

Remote Past

Future

Remote Future

Sing Plural Sing Plural

Sing

Plural

Sing

Plural Sing

Plural

incl.

-xo

-eme

-ko

-keme

-kɑxo

-kɑeme

-so

-seme

-sɑxo

-sɑeme

excl.

-ome

-kɑme

-kɑome

-sɑme

-sɑome

inf.

-su

-ume

-ku

-kome

-kɑsu

-kɑume

-sɑu

-some

-sɑsu

-sɑume

form.

-seɑ

-sutɑ

-ke

-kotɑ

-kɑe

-kɑutɑ

-se

-sotɑ

-sɑe

-sɑutɑ

form.

-leɑ

-lutɑ

inf.

-to

-ɑtɑ

-kɑ

-kɑtɑ

-kɑto

-kɑɑtɑ

-sɑ

-sɑtɑ

-sɑto

-sɑɑtɑ

Adjectival affixes

Inflectional
prefixes

Interrogative

Negative

ʦi-

ɲɑ-

Animacy

Volitional

(oθe-)

Nonvolitional

(eʦi-)

Inanimate

(ɑɸɑ-)

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθDerivational
prefixes

Adjectival

Comparative

uʦe-

Superlative

hiuʦe-

107

Diminutive

De-adjectival Nominalize

Inflectional
suffixes

Case

Nominalize
(‘one who’)

Verbalize

Adverbialize

Agentive

Patientive

Genitive

Dative

Locative

Comitative

Instrumental

Ablative

Vocative

Predicate

int-neg-anim-comp/super-dim-adj-case

li-

teʃ-

ɑθe-

axi-

so-

—

-ɑmo

-es

-ise

-eɸ

-itɑ

-teɸ

JESSIE SAMS108

English-Hiuʦɑθ Dictionary

Hiuʦɑθ

meθɑlu

xiteθ

hiuʦefɑe

mexo

sɑftune

θɑhno

eliʦɑ

lɑʃetɑ

lɑʃetɑθe

eɸestɑ

ɸestɑ

hiUzad

POS

medalu

xited

hiUzefaE

mexo

saftune

dahno

Eliza

laceta

lacetade

Ebesta

besta

English

ability, competence

ability, talent

abominable (lit. ‘most bad’)

about, concerning (+DAT);
around (+LOC); (go) around
(+ACC); out and around (+ABL)

across, through (+ACC); across
(+LOC) (e.g., ‘she is across the
river’)

add

advise

advisor (nom. of ‘advise’)

after that, next (rel. to ‘after’)

after, behind (+LOC)

afternoon (rel. to ‘after’ and
‘noon’)

again (lit. ‘twice’)

against (+DAT)

air

alive

all, whole

allow

alone

already

amaze, surprise

ambition (lit. ‘self want’)

adj

prep

adv

prep

adv

prep

adj

adv

desmedsola

θesmeθsolɑ

coluda

hibza

Azomi

tefale

Ispole

oftasu

monataheO

lacakad

zomice

modeAtax

ʃoluθɑ

hiɸʦɑ

ɑʦomi

tefɑle

ispole

oftɑʃu

monɑʃ

lɑʃɑkɑθ

ʦomiʃe

moθeɑtɑx

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ109

hiUzad

Hiuʦɑθ

ɑʃ

letinofizasdelos

létinofiʦɑsθelos

zafimade

ʦɑfimɑθe

Iko

tacali

tamali

taxali

taAli

tajali

xeAh

lexespo

zahnida

Osde

pedme

iko

tɑʃɑli

tɑmɑli

tɑxɑli

tɑɑli

tɑɲɑli

xeɑh

lexespo

ʦɑhɲiθɑ

osθe

peθme

xixilazaludmes

xixilɑʦɑluθmes

English

and

anecdote, proverb, saying (dim. of
‘fable’)

angel (lit. ‘deliverer’)

angry

animal (farm animal)

animal (forest (i.e., native) animal)

animal (house animal (i.e., pet/do-
mesticated))

animal (large classification label)

animal (wild (i.e., exotic/non-
native) animal)

ankle

annoy

answer

POS

conj

adj

any, some (unknown entity)

pro

appear

April (lit. ‘heal month’)

argue (rel. to ‘against’)

arm

around (+LOC); (go) around
(+ACC); concerning, about
(+DAT); out and around (+ABL)

art

prep

as … as … (‘as happy as a clam’)

conj

ashes

ask

Assembly Hall, temple (rel. to
‘holy’)

at, in (+LOC)

hibzade

zeca

mexo

Ujexa

zed

EpaOci

zahje

xaIbaje

hades

prep

hiɸʦɑθe

ʦeʃɑ

mexo

uɲexɑ

ʦeθ … ʦeθ

epɑoʃi

ʦɑhɲe

xɑiɸɑɲe

hɑθes

JESSIE SAMS110

English

attract, charm

attraction, charm, magnetism

attractive, sexy (unexplainable at-
tractiveness or magnetism)

August (lit. ‘find month’)

aura, soul, spirit (collective of a
person’s character)

awaken, become aware (lit. ‘eye
wake’)

away

away, from (+ACC); out of
(+ABL)

awe (+GEN) (used only for
negative awe: ‘Her anger awed
me’) (lit. ‘make silent’) (cannot be
passive)

awe (+GEN) (used only for
positive awe: ‘Her courage awed
me’) (lit. ‘make silent’) (cannot be
passive)

baby

back

bad (for people)

bad (of objects)

bag (dev. of ‘carry’)

bark (rel. to ‘brown’)

beautiful (of nature)

beautiful (of objects)

beautiful (of people)

beauty (of people; often metaphori-
cal)

hiUzad

POS

pacme

paco

pacolido

adj

solida

ObadeOlis

lofa

adv

prep

Hiuʦɑθ

pɑʃme

pɑʃo

pɑʃoliθo

soliθɑ

oɸɑθeolis

lofɑ

xicinacoludaludmes

xiʃinɑʃoluθɑluθmes

adj

AxisanafiO

ɑxisɑnɑfio

Axisanahe

ɑxisɑnɑhe

ledlo

dahilo

faE

faAbne

fimaleAd

pahe

mado

codexame

codeAble

codemo

codemu

leθlo

θɑhilo

fɑe

fɑɑɸne

fimɑleɑθ

pɑhe

mɑθo

ʃoθexɑme

ʃoθeɑɸle

ʃoθemo

ʃoθemu

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ111

English

because

become aware, awaken (lit. ‘eye
wake’)

become, change

bed

before, in front of (+LOC)

begin

behind

behind, after (+LOC)

belief

believe

belly

below, under (+LOC); under
(+ACC); out from under (+ABL)

beseech, pray

beside, along, to the side, near
(+LOC); (go) along the side of
(+ACC)

best, superior

bestow, grant (rel. to ‘give’ and
‘answer’)

better

better than, more than, than
(+ACC)

big

bird

bite (rel. to ‘tooth’)

black

bless

block

hiUzad

Aniso

POS

conj

ObadeOlis

xizo

jeho

zuco

cone

besta

IfepaIdo

Ifepa

miAte

sulo

zahjema

xiUd

hiUze

juzahme

Uze

zega

haO

Uzeka

dicto

xeIsda

lisune

Acdega

prep

adv

prep

adj

prep

adj

Hiuʦɑθ

ɑniso

oɸɑθeolis

xiʦo

ɲeho

ʦuʃo

ʃone

ɸestɑ

ifepɑiθo

ifepɑ

miɑte

sulo

ʦɑhɲemɑ

xiuθ

hiuʦe

ɲuʦɑhme

uʦe

ʦeŋɑ

hɑo

uʦekɑ

θiʃto

xeisθɑ

lisune

ɑʃθeŋɑ

JESSIE SAMS112

English

blood

bloom (lit. ‘new/young flower’)

blow (rel. to ‘wind’)

blue

boast

body

bone

book

border, boundary (rel. to ‘final’ and
‘edge’)

boring

born

both … and

bottle

boundary, border (rel. to ‘final’ and
‘edge’)

box (nom. of ‘hold’)

boy

brain

branch (dim. of ‘tree’)

bread

breakfast, morning ceremony

breast, chest

breathe (rel. to ‘air’)

brick

bring

brother

brown

hiUzad

POS

hemid

bidenisdu

behamo

xiElasda

hockelame

Ezaf

poned

zamecpodu

Uzigac

Axno

hemala

lotipoce

Uzigac

juladoAd

lexapone

nuled

letabiha

mackala

jixes

setilo

Azomeli

sogaf

maca

fadano

adj

conj

pahesda

adj

Hiuʦɑθ

hemiθ

ɸiθenisθu

ɸehɑmo

xielɑsθɑ

hoʃkelɑme

eʦɑf

poneθ

ʦɑmeʃpoθu

uʦiŋɑʃ

ɑxno

hemɑlɑ

ɑʃ … ɑʃ

lotipoʃe

uʦiŋɑʃ

ɲulɑθoɑθ

léxɑpone

nuleθ

létɑɸihɑ

mɑʃkɑlɑ

ɲixes

setilo

ɑʦomeli

soŋɑf

mɑʃɑ

fɑθɑno

pɑhesθɑ

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθEnglish

hiUzad

POS

bug (e.g., mite, lice, bed bug)

build (rel. to ‘hand’)

building

burn (rel. to ‘fire’)

but

butt

butterfly

buy

calendar, eighty-four-year cycle

call

can

cane

care (rel. to ‘careful’)

careful

carry

carve, sculpt

carver, potter, sculptor

cat

catch

cause

certainty

chair

change, become

charm, attract

charm, attraction, magnetism

cheap (metaphorical use: ‘no big-
gie’)

child (dim. of ‘person’)

fehota

Ijusdo

xaje

paOcdamo

Ano

tuAcmu

biOca

Espo

kalena

zadhe

dalu

hifte

lifa

lifeO

fimale

Ujeza

Ujezade

kociA

Ixtole

Ulef

ladese

mego

xizo

pacme

paco

Izo

ledelune

conj

aux

adj

113

Hiuʦɑθ

fehotɑ

iɲusθo

xɑɲe

pɑoʃθɑmo

ɑno

tuɑʃmu

ɸioʃɑ

espo

kɑlenɑ

ʦɑθhe

θɑlu

hifte

lifɑ

lifeo

fimɑle

uɲeʦɑ

uɲeʦɑθe

koʃiɑ

ixtole

ulef

lɑθese

meŋo

xiʦo

pɑʃme

pɑʃo

iʦo

léθelune

JESSIE SAMShiUzad

mefeO

menalef

xamala

Hiuʦɑθ

mefeo

menɑlef

xɑmɑlɑ

xasebmeIdo

xɑseɸmeiθo

114

English

choose

circle (lit. ‘one line’)

city (rel. to ‘together’ and ‘live’)

class (nom. of ‘learn together’)

clay

clean

clique, team (dim. of ‘group’)

clock

clothes

cloud

cold

colony

color

come (rel. to ‘to’)

command, order

commune

communicate, interpret, translate

communicate, mediate

communion, community

community, communion

competence, ability

POS

adj

concerning, about (+DAT);
around (+LOC); (go) around
(+ACC); out and around (+ABL)

prep

halubne

kilecna

lepujela

Anixo

pezuci

cimono

xifdelo

xis

konila

zoske

filodne

zahlome

xalada

zademeO

mizade

xaladaIdo

medalu

mexo

confuse

content

control

fiOza

luda

gibaIdo

adj

hɑluɸne

kileʃnɑ

lépuɲelɑ

ɑnixo

peʦuʃi

ʃimono

xifθelo

xis

konilɑ

ʦoske

filoθne

ʦɑhlome

xɑlɑθɑ

ʦɑθemeo

miʦɑθe

xɑlɑθɑiθo

meθɑlu

mexo

fioʦɑ

luθɑ

ŋiɸɑiθo

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθhiUzad

POS

English

control

conversation (nom. of ‘talk’)

converse, talk (lit. ‘together speak’) v

cook

copy, duplicate (lit. ‘cause become
two’)

corner

council (nom. of ‘advise together’)

count

cover

crazy

create

crooked

cry

cup (nom. of ‘drink’)

cushion (dim. of ‘bed’)

cut

cute (dim. of ‘beautiful’)

daily

dance (rel. to ‘joy’)

danger

dangerous

dark

daughter

dawn; hours of the morning just
before and as the sun rises

day; hours between dawn and
twilight

debt

adj

adv

adj

giba

xazadeIdo

xazade

Agela

Ulefxizocolu

mezi

xalecetaIdo

nosa

kisne

Actaga

kagime

Igale

Osa

timeAd

lejeho

Ocdule

licodemo

soEdasola

lusi

Iledje

EdaIledje

xeIs

halone

jimaga

sola

Ehioc

115

Hiuʦɑθ

ŋiɸɑ

xɑʦɑθeiθo

xɑʦɑθe

ɑŋelɑ

ulefxiʦoʃolu

meʦi

xɑleʃetɑiθo

nosɑ

kisne

ɑʃtɑŋɑ

kɑŋime

iŋɑle

osɑ

timeɑθ

léɲeho

oʃθule

líʃoθemo

soéθɑsolɑ

lusi

ileθɲe

eθɑíleθɲe

xeis

hɑlone

ɲimɑŋɑ

solɑ

ehioʃ

JESSIE SAMS116

English

hiUzad

POS

Hiuʦɑθ

December (lit. ‘move month’)

delight

deliver (rel. to ‘say’, ‘carry’)

demon (spirit with ability to in-
habit bodies)

denoting Gift

desire, want (rel. to ‘wish’)

desire, want, wish

destroy

devil

diablerie, reckless mischief, charis-
matic wildness

diacritic (used for reduced form of
vowels)

die (rel. to ‘after’)

difference (impact)

different

difficult

dig

diminutive

dinner, evening ceremony

direction, way

dirt (rel. to ‘ground’, ‘earth’,
‘brown’)

dirty

disappear

do crafts, sew, draw, knit

dog

adj

ximobuleludmes

ximoɸuleluθmes

tuladle

zafima

gaxozo

Ataxe

sitaxe

Ogefzu

fahacde

dipule

tiAkaledo

sibesto

ziAmoIdo

fahale

Oce

mehole

leI

nuxes

zetilo

halus

socud

Etinoh

laca

juduO

sopagu

tulɑθle

ʦɑfimɑ

ŋɑxoʦo

xi-

ɑtɑxe

sitɑxe

oŋefʦu

fɑhɑʃθe

θipule

tiɑkɑleθo

siɸesto

ʦiɑmoiθo

fɑhɑle

oʃe

mehole

lei-

nuxes

ʦetilo

hɑlus

soʃuθ

etinoh

lɑʃɑ

ɲuθuo

sopɑŋu

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ117

Hiuʦɑθ

neθɑh

tuhɑne

tofɑhɑθ

sileɸ

ʦɑuɲe

ɲuθuo

iŋɑxime

luoŋo

ʃimɑ

sɑfelɑ

time

kipoθ

isθu

fɑʃo

English

hiUzad

POS

nedah

tuhane

tofahad

sileb

zaUje

juduO

Igaxime

luOgo

cima

safela

time

kipod

Isdu

faco

door (rel. to ‘go’ and ‘through’)

doubt

down (as a direction)

dragonfly

draw

draw, do crafts, sew, knit

dream

dress

drink

dry

adj

due to, on account of, for (+DAT) prep

dull

duplicate, copy (lit. ‘cause become
two’)

durability (rel. to ‘endure’)

dust

ear

earth, world, planet

east (rel. to ‘rise’)

easy

eat

edge

egg

eight

eighty-four (lit. ‘right/true num-
ber’)

adj

Ulefxizocolu

ulefxiʦoʃolu

kafeIsped

kɑfeispeθ

fex

Odale

haIspo

hizad

Idone

komac

gac

Obale

Ahne

fex

oθɑle

hɑispo

hiʦɑθ

iθne

komɑʃ

ŋɑʃ

oɸɑle

ɑhne

IbotenosaIdo

iɸotenosɑiθo

JESSIE SAMS118

English

eighty-four-year cycle (lit. ‘four
life cycle’)

eighty-four-year cycle, calendar

either … or

Elder (nom. of ‘lead’)

eleven

empty

end

endanger

endure

energy

enough

envy

eternal (no beginning or end)

evening (hours just before and
after the sun sets) (rel. to ‘night’,
‘before’, ‘moon’)

evening ceremony, dinner

event

every

everyday

evil

example (dim. of ‘idea’)

expect

hiUzad

POS

conj

adj

balemalajelo

kalena

lace

Elenade

Eneso

EOla

dale

Iledo

kafeA

kafelo

melufna

domiIdo

domi

selefsa

nuzume

nuxes

deleba

jupasla

Edasola

fahozu

leIzima

lufne

nebdali

expensive (metaphorical use)

adj

experiment

express

ElixeIdo

Elixe

Axizadelo

Hiuʦɑθ

ɸɑlemɑlɑɲelo

kɑlenɑ

lɑʃe … lɑʃe

elenɑθe

eneso

eolɑ

θɑle

ileθo

kɑfeɑ

kɑfelo

melufnɑ

θomiiθo

θomi

selefsɑ

nuʦume

nuxes

θeleɸɑ

ɲupɑslɑ

éθɑsolɑ

fɑhoʦu

léiʦimɑ

lufne

neɸθɑli

elixeiθo

elixe

ɑ́xiʦɑθelo

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθEnglish

hiUzad

POS

Hiuʦɑθ

119

express intense emotion (lit. ‘soul
express’)

eye

fable, parable (lit. ‘teach story’)

face

fact

faith

fake

fall

fall (lit. ‘color season’)

false, wrong

family

far

far (from) (+LOC)

farm

fascinate

fast

fat

father

fear

fear (related to ‘fear’ (v.))

feather

February (lit. ‘destroy month’)

female, feminine

feminine, female

few

field

adj

prep

adj

dolitaAxizadelo

θolitɑɑxiʦɑθelo

Obade

tinofizasdelos

oɸɑθe

tinofiʦɑsθelos

Acka

Eloxo

jebila

dackane

Ojed

ɑʃkɑ

eloxo

ɲeɸilɑ

θɑʃkɑne

oɲeθ

zoskeEjosdo

ʦoskeeɲosθo

fahote

xadane

tackime

tacki

calef

badsino

ziO

Ifpa

padane

zajabo

zajab

nabi

fɑhote

xɑθɑne

tɑʃkime

tɑʃki

ʃɑlef

ɸɑθsino

ʦio

ifpɑ

pɑθɑne

ʦɑɲɑɸo

ʦɑɲɑɸ

nɑɸi

xiOgefzuludmes

xioŋefʦuluθmes

luE

leIpo

xaOc

lue

leipo

xɑoʃ

JESSIE SAMShiUzad

peAcke

pebo

POS

Uzima

adj

120

English

fight (for fighting’s sake) (verbal or
physical)

fight (with good reason) (verbal or
physical)

final, last

find (lit. ‘see again’ (or ‘see
twice’))

finish (lit. ‘cause end’)

fire

first

fish

five

float

flow (rel. to ‘water’)

flower

fly

fog (dim. of ‘cloud’)

fold

follow, obey (rel. to ‘with’)

food

foolish

foot

adj

for, on account of, due to (+DAT) prep

forest, woods

forever (lit. ‘no end’)

adj

forget (rel. to ‘lose’ and ‘memory’) v

forgive (+DAT)

four

free

adj

cinacoluda

Ulefdale

paOc

noI

pedsa

biblu

selah

hacelo

bide

Alikadi

lexifdelo

coje

xameli

xeso

pujeO

petas

Isdu

xaOtab

gadale

kucezama

hibe

bale

gulafe

Hiuʦɑθ

peɑʃke

peɸo

uʦimɑ

ʃinɑʃoluθɑ

ulefθɑle

pɑoʃ

noi

peθsɑ

ɸiɸlu

selɑh

hɑʃelo

ɸiθe

ɑlikɑθi

léxifθelo

ʃoɲe

xɑmeli

xeso

puɲeo

petɑs

isθu

xɑotɑɸ

ŋɑ́θɑle

kuʃeʦɑmɑ

hiɸe

ɸɑle

ŋulɑfe

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ121

English

free, release

freeze (rel. to ‘ice’)

frequency

frequent

frequently, often

friend

from, away (+ACC); out of
(+ABL)

fruit (rel. to ‘life’ and ‘flower’)

fulfill

full

funny

game (nom. of ‘play’)

generation (rel. to ‘year’)

get

Gift

gift, present

Gifted

girl

give

glad, happy

glass

glove, net (nom. of ‘catch’)

go around (+ACC); around
(+LOC); concerning, about
(+DAT); out and around (+ABL)

God (‘Yahweh’)

God (lit. ‘creator’)

hiUzad

POS

gulo

hize

pofte

Edapofte

soEdapofte

Ameli

lofa

malabid

mesaco

catec

xilaso

hukazoido

Enosdana

xelota

xibad

helotase

xibade

lelune

juE

ludeli

kigaco

IxtoleAd

neci

mexo

Ahbeh

kagimede

adj

adv

prep

adj

prep

Hiuʦɑθ

ŋulo

hiʦe

pofte

eθɑpofte

soeθɑpofte

ɑmeli

lofɑ

mɑlɑɸiθ

mesɑʃo

ʃɑteʃ

xilɑso

hukɑʦoiθo

eɲosθɑnɑ

xelotɑ

xiɸɑθ

helotɑse

xiɸɑθe

lélune

ɲue

luθeli

kiŋɑʃo

ixtoleɑθ

neʃi

mexo

ɑhɸeh

kɑŋimeθe

JESSIE SAMSxaElenaIdo

xɑelenɑiθo

hiUzad

POS

122

English

god, lord

good (for people)

good (of objects)

goodbye (rel. to ‘end’)

goof up, mess up

government (nom. of ‘together
lead’)

grain

grand, great

granddaughter (dim. of ‘daughter’)

grandmother

grant, bestow (rel. to ‘give’ and
‘answer’)

grass (rel. to ‘green’)

great-granddaughter

great-grandmother

great, grand

greater good

green

greet (lit. ‘cause begin’)

ground (rel. to ‘earth’)

group

grow (intransitive only)

grunt worker

guts

hair

half (rel. to ‘two’)

hand

adj

deUs

Ibune

IAbne

Aftale

Isolate

kala

sige

lehalone

ladone

juzahme

xaOli

haleA

hiladone

sige

Adake

xaOlisda

Ulefcone

hapad

pujela

xakadi

Able

sed

caUle

coludle

jusa

adj

Hiuʦɑθ

θeus

iɸune

iɑɸne

ɑfθɑle

isolɑte

kɑlɑ

siŋe

léhɑlone

lɑθone

ɲuʦɑhme

xɑoli

hɑleɑ

hilɑθone

siŋe

ɑθɑke

xɑolisθɑ

ulefʃone

hɑpɑθ

puɲelɑ

xɑkɑθi

ɑɸle

seθ

ʃɑule

ʃoluθle

ɲusɑ

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθEnglish

happen, occur

happiness

happiness (at another’s expense),
schadenfreude

happy, glad

hard

hat

hate

have

head

heal

healthy (rel. to ‘live’)

hear

heart

heavens, sky

heavy

hello (rel. to ‘begin’)

help

here

hide

hierarchy (social)

hilarity, humor

hill

hit

hold (rel. to ‘hand’)

holy

hiUzad

POS

Efeni

xalude

moludna

ludeli

zato

jeIs

nocte

leto

kada

xilaza

malacti

Ate

xiUc

xiEbo

hepad

Icone

Adu

pala

nolef

pecazone

juxile

hiloze

fela

julado

Ibuja

adj

adv

holy, sacred (lit. ‘most good’)

honor, respect

hiUzeIbune

hebdaIdo

adj

123

Hiuʦɑθ

efeni

xɑluθe

moluθnɑ

luθeli

ʦɑto

ɲeis

noʃte

leto

kɑθɑ

xilɑʦɑ

mɑlɑʃti

ɑte

xiuʃ

xieɸo

hepɑθ

iʃone

ɑθu

pɑlɑ

nolef

peʃɑʦone

ɲuxile

hiloʦe

felɑ

ɲulɑθo

iɸuɲɑ

hiuʦeiɸune

heɸθɑiθo

JESSIE SAMS124

English

hope

hope (rel. to ‘hope’ (v.))

hot

house

how

human Gift (lit. ‘false Gift’)

human with Gift (lit. ‘Gifted
thing’)

humble

humility

humor, hilarity

hundred

hunt

hurt

husband

ice

idea

impact

important (rel. to ‘superior’)

imposter; implies non-volitional or
accidental (lit. ‘false flower’)

imposter; implies volitional or
purposeful (lit. ‘false flower’)

in front of, before (+LOC)

in, at (+LOC)

indeed

indigo

adj

int

adj

pro

conj

adj

prep

adv

adj

hiUzad

POS

taheda

taheno

hocte

duloc

Elo

Hiuʦɑθ

tɑheθɑ

tɑheno

hoʃte

θuloʃ

elo

fahotexibad

Abxibade

fɑhotexiɸɑθ

ɑ́ɸxiɸɑθe

foliziA

folite

juxile

xeno

ciAge

zafeO

xaponeO

dexo

hizeja

Izima

Ule

ziAmo

hiUsme

fahotebide

foliʦiɑ

folite

ɲuxile

xeno

ʃiɑŋe

ʦɑfeo

xɑponeo

θexo

hiʦeɲɑ

iʦimɑ

ule

ʦiɑmo

hiusme

fɑhoteɸiθe

Odefahotebide

oθefɑhoteɸiθe

zuco

hades

jime

kojesida

ʦuʃo

hɑθes

ɲime

koɲesiθɑ

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ125

Hiuʦɑθ

uʦefɑe

iŋos

istɑ

muɲekɑ

muɲekɑlih

ʦɑθemeo

filoθ

kɑneʃ

lékeɲeʃ

English

inferior (used to describe someone
the speaker looks down on) (lit.
‘more bad’)

hiUzad

UzefaE

POS

adj

Igos

Ista

mujeka

mujekalih

zademeO

filod

kanec

lekejec

insect

intend (to do)

interest (+DAT)

interesting (part. of ‘interest’)

interpret, communicate, translate

into (+LOC); until (+DAT); to,
toward (+ACC)

iron

island (dim. of ‘land’)

isolate (other-imposed) (lit. ‘cause
make alone’)

isolate (self-imposed) (lit. ‘make
alone’)

isolation

it (animacy without volition)

it (inanimate)

January (lit. ‘make month’)

Jesus Christ

joke (lit. ‘cause laugh’); tease
(+DAT)

journey, trip, vacation

joy

judge

judgment

July (lit. ‘see month’)

June (lit. ‘protect month’)

adj

prep

UlefAximonac

ulefɑximonɑʃ

Aximonac

AximonacIdo

tiAta

Abto

pro

xinisliludmes

IEsu kalisto

Ulefxila

someca

lusile

Elasade

Elasa

ElasaIdo

ɑ́ximonɑʃ

ɑ́ximonɑʃiθo

tiɑtɑ

ɑɸto

xinisliluθmes

iesu kalisto

ulefxilɑ

someʃɑ

lusile

elɑsɑθe

elɑsɑ

elɑsɑiθo

xicinaludmes

xicileteludmes

xiʃinɑluθmes

xiʃileteluθmes

JESSIE SAMS126

English

keep

key (nom. of ‘open’)

kill (lit. ‘cause die’)

kind (nice)

kingdom

kiss (+DAT) (cannot be intransi-
tive)

knife (nom. of ‘cut’)

knit, do crafts, sew, draw

know

knowledge

label, name (nom. of ‘call’)

lake

lamentation, wail, threnody

land (singular only–mass noun)

language (nom. of ‘say’)

language of Gifteds (lit. ‘superior
language’)

last (rel. to ‘stamina’, ‘endure’,
‘durability’)

last, final

lasting

laugh; laugh at (+DAT)

law

lazy

lead

leader (nom. of ‘lead’)

leaf

learn

adj

hiUzad

POS

Okesa

nomaxaAd

Ulefsibesto

delese

basile

xiA

OcduleAd

juduO

saga

sagaIdo

zadheIdo

Alelo

denotiA

kejec

zadeIdo

Hiuʦɑθ

okesɑ

nomɑxɑɑθ

ulefsiɸesto

θelese

ɸɑsile

xiɑ

oʃθuleɑθ

ɲuθuo

sɑŋɑ

sɑŋɑiθo

ʦɑθheiθo

ɑlelo

θenotiɑ

keɲeʃ

ʦɑθeiθo

hiUzezadeIdo

hiuʦeʦɑθeiθo

kafe

Uzima

kafelih

xila

gelaIlo

kupecne

Elena

Elenade

xaOja

sebme

kɑfe

uʦimɑ

kɑfelih

xilɑ

ŋelɑilo

kupeʃne

elenɑ

elenɑθe

xɑoɲɑ

seɸme

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθEnglish

leave (rel. to ‘away’)

left

leg

lesson (nom. of ‘teach’)

let go, spill, let loose

let loose, let go, spill

letter (correspondence)

lick

lie (accidental; e.g., telling a non-
truth because unaware of the full
story)

lie (down)

lie (intentional) (lit. ‘say false’)

lie by withholding information

life (a person’s life from birth to
death) (nom. of ‘live’)

life (general–no beginning and
end)

life cycle

light

light (as in ‘I see light’)

light (as in ‘turn on the light’)

light (for shades/hues)

light (for well-lit areas)

like (used generally with objects or
clauses; expresses preference)

line

lip

list

hiUzad

lofadne

Efdo

saOx

tinofiIdo

Olaxe

zamaspodu

lasha

zadefah

noda

zadefahote

zadefahno

malacaido

malaxe

malajelo

sujeleb

sujelebido

sujelebad

paIs

sujeleblih

luseja

nef

libe

Imud

POS

adj

127

Hiuʦɑθ

lofɑθne

efθo

sɑox

tinofiiθo

olɑxe

ʦɑmɑspoθu

lɑshɑ

ʦɑθefɑh

noθɑ

ʦɑθefɑhote

ʦɑθefɑhno

mɑlɑʃɑiθo

mɑlɑxe

mɑlɑɲelo

suɲeleɸ

suɲeleɸiθo

suɲeleɸɑθ

pɑis

suɲeleɸlih

luseŋɑ

nef

liɸe

imuθ

JESSIE SAMS128

English

listen (lit. ‘cause hear’)

live

liver

lizard

location

locative

lock (nom. of ‘close’)

long

long-lasting

look, watch (lit. ‘cause see’)

lord, god

lose

love

love (rel. to verb form)

lower (rel. to ‘below’)

loyalty

lucky (lit. ‘four find’; 4 is a lucky/
blessed number)

lucky (only applicable to non-
Xiɸɑθeho)

lunch, mid-day break

machine (nom. of ‘work’)

magnet (rel. to ‘attract’)

magnetism, attraction, charm

make

male, masculine

man

Hiuʦɑθ

ulefɑte

mɑlɑʃɑ

fɑeh

ɲoʃeli

xomelɑʃ

-hɑθ

peʦuʃiɑθ

ŋɑle

kɑfeispo

ulefʃinɑ

θeus

kuʃteɑ

ɑleθe

ɑleθiɑ

suloθ

ɲesikɑ

hiUzad

POS

UlefAte

malaca

faEh

joceli

xomelac

had

pezuciAd

gale

kafeIspo

Ulefcina

deUs

kucteA

Alede

AlediA

sulod

jesika

adj

balecinacoluda

ɸɑleʃinɑʃoluθɑ

sumaI

adj

mexes

AlexoAd

pacole

paco

nisli

xane

xapone

adj

sumɑe

mexes

ɑlexoɑθ

pɑʃole

pɑʃo

nisli

xɑne

xɑpone

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθEnglish

manner

many

map

March (lit. ‘provide month’)

marry

marvel (at) (+DAT) (used only for
negative marveling: ‘I marveled at
her stupidity’) (lit. ‘bad’ and ‘see’)
(cannot be passive)

marvel (at) (+DAT) (used only for
positive marveling: ‘I marveled at
her courage’) (lit. ‘good’ and ‘see’)
(cannot be passive)

masculine, male

may

May (lit. ‘interpret month’)

POS

adj

aux

maybe, perhaps (rel. to ‘probable’)

adv

mean

measure

meat

mediate, communicate

meet (lit. ‘together come’)

memory

mess up, goof up

message

method, way

mid-day break; lunch

middle

miracle, natural wonder

adj

129

hiUzad

talizo

maIpo

kalidoga

Hiuʦɑθ

tɑliʦo

mɑipo

kɑliθoŋɑ

xiEctaludmes

xieʃtɑluθmes

Omeli

faci

Ibci

xane

pabe

omeli

fɑʃi

iɸʃi

xɑne

pɑɸe

xizadeludmes

xiʦɑθeluθmes

Ifto

necafo

Istane

Ejenosa

xado

mizade

xafilodne

zamas

Isolate

zadmas

mekuse

mexes

medaO

zuImane

ifto

neʃɑfo

istɑɲe

eŋenosɑ

xɑθo

miʦɑθe

xɑfiloθne

ʦɑmɑs

isolɑte

ʦɑθmɑs

mekuse

mexes

meθɑo

ʦuimɑne

JESSIE SAMS130

English

mission

mold, shape, train

month (rel. to ‘moon’)

moon

more than, better than, than
(+ACC)

morning ceremony; breakfast

mother

mountain

mouse

mouth

move

mud (lit. ‘wet dirt’)

muscle

music (rel. to ‘joy’)

must

name, label (nom. of ‘call’)

narrow

natural wonder; miracle

nature

near

near (to) (+LOC)

neck

need

neither … nor

net, glove (nom. of ‘catch’)

neutral (lit. ‘no color’)

new, young

hiUzad

POS

besiO

kesme

ludmes

lume

zega

jixes

madane

mosje

muce

miba

mobule

lajehalus

xad

lisulaja

hasana

zadheIdo

leno

zuImane

xaOmed

siOle

siO

Onise

halada

jalace

IxtoleAd

jazoske

nisdu

prep

aux

adj

prep

conj

adj

Hiuʦɑθ

ɸesio

kesme

luθmes

lume

ʦeŋɑ

ɲixes

mɑθɑne

mosŋe

muʃe

miɸɑ

moɸule

lɑɲehɑlus

xɑθ

lisulɑɲɑ

hɑsɑnɑ

ʦɑθheiθo

leno

ʦuimɑne

xɑomeθ

siole

sio

onise

hɑlɑθɑ

ɲɑlɑʃe … ɲɑlɑʃe

ixtoleɑθ

ɲɑ́ʦoske

nisθu

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθEnglish

next (rel. to ‘after’)

next, after that (rel. to ‘after’)

nice (for people–character trait)

nice (of objects)

night (hours between twilight and
dawn)

nine

POS

adj

adv

adj

none, zero, nothing (lit. ‘no thing’)

adj

noon/midday (lit. ‘mid-day’)

normal

north

nose

not (dec.)

not (imp.)

adj

neg

nothing, zero, none (lit. ‘no thing’)

adj

nourish, satisfy (personally, emo-
tionally)

November (lit. ‘block month’)

131

Hiuʦɑθ

ɸestɑlo

eɸestɑ

θemɑ

θeɑɸmɑ

nuθne

neni

neɑɸθe

meθsolɑ

timɑʃi

noliθ

uŋe

ŋɑi

ŋei

neɑɸθe

milo

hiUzad

bestalo

Ebesta

dema

deAbma

nudne

neni

neAbde

medsola

timaci

nolid

Uge

gaI

geI

neAbde

milo

xiAcdegaludmes

xiɑʃθeŋɑluθmes

now

fala

adv

number (nom. of ‘count’)

obey, follow (rel. to ‘with’)

obligation, duty (general)

obligation, duty (to Colony/society) n

obligation, duty (to family)

obligation, duty (to role/title/job)

obligation, duty (to self)

occur, happen

ocean

nosaIdo

xameli

cane

cakone

caxane

canahe

camodene

Efeni

hihaca

fɑlɑ

nosɑiθo

xɑmeli

ʃɑne

ʃɑkone

ʃɑxɑne

ʃɑnɑhe

ʃɑmoθene

efeni

hihɑʃɑ

JESSIE SAMShiUzad

xiOkesaludmes

nazulix

sela

Hiuʦɑθ

xiokesɑluθmes

nɑʦulix

selɑ

132

English

October (lit. ‘keep month’)

of course

off of (+ABL) (‘jump off the
table’); on, over (+LOC); over
(+ACC)

offer

often, frequently

old

on, over (+LOC); over (+ACC);
off of (+ABL) (‘jump off the
table’)

one

one (pronoun for ‘person’)

only

open

oppose (rel. to ‘against’, ‘idea’)

orange

order

order (put in order)

order, command

organizaed religion (lit. ‘together
religion’)

ostracize, throw out

other

out and around (+ABL); around
(+LOC); (go) around (+ACC);
concerning, about (+DAT)

out from under (+ABL); under,
below (+LOC); under (+ACC)

POS

adv

prep

adv

adj

prep

adj

pro

adj

conj

adj

Ucesne

soEdapofte

Acela

sela

mone

monedo

nomaxa

hibzima

lace

cenasda

loOcne

loxma

zahlome

xaIfepaIdo

xepoleda

daci

mexo

adj

prep

sulo

prep

uʃesne

soeθɑpofte

ɑʃelɑ

selɑ

mone

θe

moneθo

nomɑxɑ

hiɸʦimɑ

lɑʃe

ʃenɑsθɑ

looʃne

loxmɑ

ʦɑhlome

xɑifepɑiθo

xepoleθɑ

θɑʃi

mexo

sulo

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθEnglish

out of (+ABL); away, from
(+ACC)

outcast

outside (metaphorical sense of
‘abnormal’)

outside (of) (+LOC)

over, on (+LOC); over (+ACC);
off of (+ABL) (‘jump off the
table’)

page, paper (dim. of ‘book’)

pants

paper, page (dim. of ‘book’)

parable, fable (lit. ‘teach story’)

part (nom. of ‘partial’)

part of (+GEN), partial (dim. of
‘all/whole’)

partial, part of (+GEN) (dim. of
‘all/whole’)

path (dim. of ‘road’)

peace

pen (nom. of ‘write’)

perfect

POS

prep

adj

prep

adj

perhaps, maybe (rel. to ‘probable’)

adv

person

person known for being dubiously
vague

person known for speaking out of
turn or saying the wrong thing at
the wrong time

person known for speaking without
knowing all the facts

133

hiUzad

lofa

Hiuʦɑθ

lofɑ

xepoledade

xepoleθɑθe

xepo

xeb

sela

lezamecpodu

finelo

lezamecpodu

tinofizasdelos

tecliIspole

liIspole

lelotec

Elija

zameAd

hicomecne

Ifto

delune

zadefahnode

zaziOde

xepo

xeɸ

selɑ

léʦɑmeʃpoθu

finelo

léʦɑmeʃpoθu

tinofiʦɑsθelos

teʃliispole

líispole

léloteʃ

eliɲɑ

ʦɑmeɑθ

hiʃomeʃne

ifto

θelune

ʦɑθefɑhnoθe

ʦɑʦioθe

zadefahde

ʦɑθefɑhθe

JESSIE SAMShiUzad

POS

134

English

person who cannot be trusted

person who states the obvious

picture (nom. of ‘copy’)

picture (nom. of ‘draw’)

place

planet, earth, world

plate (nom. of ‘eat’)

play

please (+DAT) (‘it pleases me’)

please (lit. ‘with hope’)

point

pond (dim. of ‘lake’)

potter, sculpter, carver

pray, beseech

presence

present, gift

price (metaphorical use)

pride

prison

probable (rel. to ‘maybe’)

probably

protect

proverb, saying, anecdote (dim. of
‘fable’)

provide

puddle

pull

pulsation, pulse, rhythm

adj

adv

zadefahotede

Axdeno

UlefxizocoluIdo

zaUjeIdo

Anibte

haIspo

komacad

hukazo

lusiA

xamotaheda

Ulicame

leAlelo

Ujezade

zahjema

xolado

helotase

Ehi

hockelacti

tuOmoca

Iftonga

Ifto

cilete

Hiuʦɑθ

ʦɑθefɑhoteθe

ɑxθeno

ulefxiʦoʃoluiθo

ʦɑuɲeiθo

ɑniɸte

hɑispo

komɑʃɑθ

hukɑʦo

lusiɑ

xɑmotɑheθɑ

uliʃɑme

léɑlelo

uɲeʦɑθe

ʦɑhɲemɑ

xolɑθo

helotɑse

ehi

hoʃkelɑʃti

tuomoʃɑ

iftoŋɑ

ifto

ʃilete

letinofizasdelos

létinofiʦɑsθelos

Ecta

Aliza

Osedme

lizumuIdo

eʃtɑ

ɑliʦɑ

oseθme

liʦumuiθo

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ135

English

pulse

pulse, pulsation, rhythm

purple

purpose (life’s purpose)

push

put

quarter (rel. to ‘four’)

queen (nom. of ‘reign’)

quiet

rain (downpour)

rain (gentle rain)

read

real

reason

record (e.g., list of past events)

record (keep track)

red

regret

reign

relative (often used when no
specific term is in the language:
‘uncle’, ‘step-sister’, etc.)

release, free

religion (lit. ‘belief system’)

remain, stay

remedy, solution

remember

respect

hiUzad

POS

lizumu

lizumuIdo

hamilada

malaclox

heleca

nib

baledle

pecamede

balije

haca

lajene

kazame

midolicne

loxos

zameloIdo

zamelo

honesda

gexi

pecame

dane

gulo

IfepaIdolobos

meseI

tisana

zamano

lesebe

adj

Hiuʦɑθ

liʦumu

liʦumuiθo

hɑmilɑθɑ

mɑlɑʃlox

heleʃɑ

niɸ

ɸɑleθle

peʃɑmeθe

ɸɑliɲe

hɑʃɑ

lɑɲenɑ

kɑʦɑme

miθoliʃne

loxos

ʦɑmeloiθo

ʦɑmelo

honesθɑ

ŋexi

peʃɑme

θɑne

ŋulo

ifepɑiθoloɸos

mesei

tisɑnɑ

ʦɑmɑno

leseɸe

JESSIE SAMS136

English

hiUzad

POS

respect (rel. to verb form)

respect, honor

respected one; term of respect

rhythm, pulse, pulsation

right

right (correct), true

ripe

rise

ritual (rel. to ‘tradition’)

river

road

roll

room (dim. of ‘house’)

root (rel. to ‘life’)

root of a problem (bad seed, bad
apple); implies non-volitional or
accidental (lit. ‘false tree’)

root of a problem (bad seed, bad
apple); implies volitional or pur-
poseful (lit. ‘false tree’)

rope

rotten

rough

royal (rel. to ‘queen’)

rub

run (rel. to ‘foot’)

s/he (animacy with volition)

s/he (formal)

sacred, holy (lit. ‘most good’)

adj

pro

adj

lesupe

hebdaIdo

Icto

lizumuIdo

lexdo

Ibote

malec

hiza

xulizace

Ojele

loteci

mobkuse

leduloc

malac

Hiuʦɑθ

lesupe

heɸθɑiθo

iʃto

liʦumuiθo

lexθo

iɸote

mɑleʃ

hiʦɑ

xuliʦɑʃe

oɲele

loteʃi

moɸkuse

léθuloʃ

mɑlɑʃ

fahotetabiha

fɑhotetɑɸihɑ

Odefahotetabiha

oθefɑhotetɑɸihɑ

losneku

Ucte

xoIf

peca

pecle

pezali

deto

deleA

losneku

uʃte

xoif

peʃɑ

peʃle

peʦali

θeto

θeleɑ

hiUzeIbune

hiuʦeiɸune

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθEnglish

sad

salt

same

sand

satisfy, nourish (personally, emo-
tionally)

say wrong thing at the wrong time,
speak out of turn (lit. ‘fast speak’)

say, speak, tell

saying, proverb, anecdote (dim. of
‘fable’)

scare

schadenfreude, happiness (at an-
other’s expense)

science (rel. to ‘nature’)

scratch

sculpt, carve

sculptor, carver, potter

sea (dim. of ‘ocean’)

season

secrecy

secret

adj

secret (rel. to (n) & (v) forms)

adj

see

seed (rel. to ‘life’)

seem

self

hiUzad

POS

Acto

Aseja

Ibdage

cezo

milo

zaziO

zade

137

Hiuʦɑθ

ɑʃto

ɑseɲɑ

iɸθɑŋe

ʃeʦo

milo

ʦɑʦio

ʦɑθe

letinofizasdelos

létinofiʦɑsθelos

ledoca

moludna

xaOmedilo

Izuka

Ujeza

Ujezade

lehihaca

secko

Ejosdo

mebaliza

balizo

balice

Ebali

cina

camalac

Edmado

delu

leθoʃɑ

moluθnɑ

xɑomeθilo

iʦukɑ

uɲeʦɑ

uɲeʦɑθe

léhihɑʃɑ

seʃko

eɲosθo

meɸɑliʦɑ

ɸɑliʦo

ɸɑliʃe

eɸɑli

ʃinɑ

ʃɑmɑlɑʃ

eθmɑθo

θelu

JESSIE SAMS138

English

self (alone)

sell

September (lit. ‘mediate month’)

servant

set

seven

sew, draw, knit, do crafts

shame

shape, mold, train

sharp

shirt

shoe

short

should

shout; (+DAT) shout to/at; (di-
transitive) shout X (to/at Y)

sick

side (of a shape or area; physical
location)

side (opposition) (rel. to ‘against’)

sign of the Gifteds

silent (rel. to ‘snow’)

silent out of turmoil (shocked/con-
fused into silence) (rel. to ‘snow’
and FIO)

sin (nom. of ‘wrong’)

sin; wrong (+GEN)

sing

adj

aux

adj

hiUzad

POS

mode

Uzane

Hiuʦɑθ

moθe-

uʦɑne

ximizadeludmes

ximiʦɑθeluθmes

tuOlas

todme

sife

juduO

Ocdele

kesme

kiza

hane

dobaje

tiA

mifne

zahade

Axzi

hibtaca

sanahe

sanafiO

tecfahote

Axofa

seje

tuolɑs

toθme

sife

ɲuθuo

oʃθele

kesme

kiʦɑ

hɑne

θoɸɑɲe

tiɑ

mifne

ʦɑhɑθe

ɑxʦi

uθ

hiɸtɑʃɑ

ximɑlɑ

sɑnɑhe

sɑnɑfio

teʃfɑhote

ɑxofɑ

seɲe

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ139

Hiuʦɑθ

ulefxiʦomone

ʃuθɑno

meoʃ

sixɑ

peɑ

xieɸo

soɲɑ

ʃɑmɑ

lei

English

hiUzad

POS

single out (lit. ‘cause become one’) v

Ulefxizomone

cudano

meOc

sixa

peA

xiEbo

soja

cama

leI

sister

sit

six

skin

sky, heavens

sleep

slow

small

smart (rel. to ‘know’)

smell

smile (rel. to ‘laugh’)

smoke

smooth

snake

snow

soft

solution, remedy

some (used for vague reference)

some, any (unknown entity)

someone (lit. ‘who some’)

something (lit. ‘what some’)

sometime (lit. ‘when some’)

somewhere (lit. ‘where some’)

son

soul (inner being released upon
death)

adj

pro

Isjesagelo

isɲesɑŋelo

geO

xije

sepaga

sose

simeja

sanalo

ledola

tisana

Osde

meloOsde

monaOsde

mejiOsde

maleOsde

xalone

dolita

ŋeo

xiɲe

sepɑŋɑ

sose

simeɲɑ

sɑnɑlo

leθolɑ

tisɑnɑ

osθe

meloosθe

monɑosθe

meɲiosθe

mɑleosθe

xɑlone

θolitɑ

JESSIE SAMS140

English

soul, aura, spirit (collective of a
person’s character)

sour

south

space

speak out of turn, say wrong thing
at the wrong time (lit. ‘fast speak’)

speak, tell, say

special

spend time (lit. ‘watch the sun’s
movement’)

spill, let loose, let go

spirit (being with no form)

spirit (collective of a person’s
character), soul, aura

spiritual

spirituality

split (ver. of ‘partial’)

spring (lit. ‘bloom season’)

squabble (dim. of ‘argue’)

square (rel. to ‘four’ and ‘same’)

squeeze

squirrel

stamina

stand

star

stay, remain

stick

still, and yet

POS

adj

adv

hiUzad

solida

mucti

solud

EliA

zaziO

zade

hisebdo

Hiuʦɑθ

soliθɑ

muʃti

soluθ

eliɑ

ʦɑʦio

ʦɑθe

hiseɸθo

Ulefcina mobuleIdo
solecsu A

ulefʃinɑ moɸuleiθo
soleʃsu ɑ

Olaxe

midkelis

solida

ObadeOlislih

ObadeOlisIdo

AxiliIspole

bideniduEjosdo

lehibzade

balibda

Izimagi

peliA

kafeno

gimas

Aseli

meseI

Etabe

zuce

olɑxe

miθkelis

soliθɑ

oɸɑθeolislih

oɸɑθeolisiθo

ɑ́xiliispole

ɸiθeniθueɲosθo

léhiɸʦɑθe

ɸɑliɸθɑ

iʦimɑŋi

peliɑ

kɑfeno

ŋimɑs

ɑʦeli

mesei

etɑɸe

ʦuʃe

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ141

English

stone

Stone (memory)

storm (rel. to ‘weather’ and ‘con-
fuse’)

story

straight

strange

stream (dim. of ‘river’)

strength (mental, ability to last; rel.
to ‘stamina’)

strong (muscular strength)

student (rel. to ‘daughter’)

study (lit. ‘cause learn’)

stupid

succeed

suck

summer (lit. ‘sun season’)

sun

superior, best

support (rel. to ‘together’, ‘idea’)

surprise, amaze

sweet

sweetheart (term of endearment for
a small boy)

sweetheart (term of endearment for
a small girl)

sweetheart; term of endearment

swell (ver. of ‘big’)

swim

hiUzad

POS

suneO

zamassuneO

fiOmed

zasdelos

satole

Ufte

leOjele

Ekafela

xafza

halosne

Ulefsebme

lubitos

polisko

lasna

solecEjosdo

solec

hiUze

xazima

zomice

seli

cikato

cikape

puje

AxihaO

nabde

adj

Hiuʦɑθ

suneo

ʦɑmɑssuneo

fiomeθ

ʦɑsθelos

sɑtole

ufte

léoɲele

ekɑfelɑ

xɑfʦɑ

hɑlosne

ulefseɸme

luɸitos

polisko

lɑsnɑ

soleʃeɲosθo

soleʃ

hiuʦe

xɑʦimɑ

ʦomiʃe

seli

ʃikɑto

ʃikɑpe

puɲe

ɑ́xihɑo

nɑɸθe

JESSIE SAMShiUzad

POS

142

English

symbol

system

table

tail

take

talent, ability

talisman (lit. ‘believe thing’)

talk, converse (lit. ‘together speak’) v

task (rel. to ‘work’)

taste

teach

teacher

team, clique (dim. of ‘group’)

tease (+DAT); joke (lit. ‘cause
laugh’)

tell, say, speak

temple, Assembly Hall (rel. to
‘holy’)

tempt

temptation

ten

terrify

terror

adj

Ezima

lobos

bula

cahes

nibe

xited

IfepaAbde

xazade

moAlexte

lase

tinofi

tinofide

lepujela

Ulefxila

zade

xaIbaje

pelice

peliceAd

tona

haledo

haledoIdo

than, more than, better than
(+ACC)

thank

thank you (nom. of ‘thank’)

that

that-there

zega

prep

dakinu

dakinuIdoho

Ala

AleO

dem

Hiuʦɑθ

eʦimɑ

loɸos

ɸulɑ

ʃɑhes

niɸe

xiteθ

ifepɑɑɸθe

xɑʦɑθe

moɑlexte

lɑse

tinofi

tinofiθe

lepuɲelɑ

ulefxilɑ

ʦɑθe

xɑiɸɑɲe

peliʃe

peliʃeɑθ

tonɑ

hɑleθo

hɑleθoiθo

ʦeŋɑ

θɑkinu

θɑkinuiθoho

ɑlɑ

ɑleo

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθEnglish

then (opposite of ‘now’)

there

they (animacy with volition)

they (animacy without volition)

they (formal)

they (inanimate)

thick

thin

thing (deh. of ‘one’)

think

this

though

thought

thousand

three

through, across (+ACC); across
(+LOC) (e.g., ‘she is across the
river’)

throw

throw out, ostracize

thus

tie (rel. to ‘together’ and ‘hand’)

time

tired

to, toward (+ACC); into (+LOC);
until (+DAT)

today

together (rel. to ‘with’)

tomorrow

hiUzad

nespo

nesi

deAta

zito

deluta

AbAta

dajo

tixo

Afde

Asaja

Esi

Omos

AsajaIdo

taces

dele

dahno

maEc

xepoleda

sedo

xajuE

Uzimad

hacde

filod

Esisola

hasuna

POS

adv

pro

adj

dem

conj

adj

prep

adv

adj

prep

adv

143

Hiuʦɑθ

nespo

nesi

θeɑtɑ

ʦito

θelutɑ

ɑɸɑtɑ

θɑɲo

tixo

ɑ́ɸθe

ɑsɑɲɑ

esi

omos

ɑsɑɲɑiθo

tɑʃes

θele

θɑhno

mɑeʃ

xepoleθɑ

seθo

xɑɲue

uʦimɑθ

hɑʃθe

filoθ

esisolɑ

xɑ

hɑsunɑ

JESSIE SAMS144

English

tongue

too

tool

tooth

tornado (lit. ‘superior wind’)

touch

POS

adv

toward, to (+ACC); into (+LOC);
until (+DAT)

prep

trade

tradition

train, mold, shape

translate, interpret, communicate

treasure

tree

trick

trip, journey, vacation

true, right (correct)

trust

truth

try

turn (metaphorical: ‘go bad’)

turn (physical direction)

twelve (lit. ‘two ten’)

twelve (sacred form; only used
when referring to the families or
Gifts)

adj

hiUzad

kolasa

Islu

Adne

dita

hiUzebehe

Ijes

filod

zilago

xulize

kesme

zademeO

desali

tabiha

xoli

someca

Ibote

Eledo

seled

nile

fahozoli

zoli

colutona

duneso

twenty-one (sacred form; used only
when referring to life cycles)

adj

moAcojelo

twins (lit. ‘twos’)

coluho

Hiuʦɑθ

kolɑsɑ

islu

ɑθne

θitɑ

hiuʦeɸehe

iɲes

filoθ

ʦilɑŋo

xuliʦe

kesme

ʦɑθemeo

θesɑli

tɑɸihɑ

xoli

someʃɑ

iɸote

eleθo

seleθ

nile

fɑhoʦoli

ʦoli

ʃolutonɑ

θuneso

moɑʃoɲelo

ʃoluho

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθEnglish

two

ugly (of nature)

ugly (of objects)

ugly (of people)

under, below (+LOC); under
(+ACC); out from under (+ABL)

understand

universe (collective unit of Creator,
world, spirits, souls)

until

until (+DAT); to, toward
(+ACC); into (+LOC)

up (as a direction)

upper (rel. to ‘above’)

uppity (used to describe someone
who thinks they’re better than ev-
eryone else) (lit. ‘more good’)

use

vacation, journey, trip

value, worth (rel. to ‘expensive’)

vehicle (nom. of ‘move’)

very (rel. to ‘superior’)

volition (lit. ‘self do’)

vomit

wagon

wail, lamentation, threnody

wake

walk (rel. to ‘foot’)

hiUzad

POS

colu

Okexame

OkeAbma

Okepa

sulo

fabicne

hiIspoxa

adj

inter

prep

filodo

filod

conj

prep

xiEbod

selad

UzeIbune

muju

someca

nebda

mobuleAd

adj

hiUc

adv

modelace

OskeOte

faliA

denotiA

Olis

pecne

145

Hiuʦɑθ

ʃolu

okexɑme

okeɑɸmɑ

okepɑ

ʦɑ

sulo

kɑɸiʃne

hiispoxɑ

filoθo

filoθ

xieɸoθ

selɑθ

uʦeiɸune

muɲu

someʃɑ

neɸθɑ

moɸuleɑθ

hiuʃ

moθelɑʃe

oskeote

fɑliɑ

θenotiɑ

olis

peʃne

JESSIE SAMS146

English

wall

want, desire (rel. to ‘wish’)

want, wish, desire

war

warm

wash (ver. of ‘clean’)

watch, look (lit. ‘cause see’)

water

way, direction

way, method

we (exclusive)

we (inclusive)

weak

weather

week (rel. to ‘seven’ and ‘day’)

welcome to —

west (rel. to ‘set’)

wet

what

wheel (nom. of ‘roll’)

when

where

which

whisper

white

who

whole, all

why

hiUzad

POS

Esa

Ataxe

sitaxe

Olaze

hojeA

Axikilecna

Ulefcina

hacose

zetilo

mekuse

deOme

deEme

liku

medelo

sifso

Ocnisdume

todmed

laje

mona

mobkusead

meji

male

mose

hube

paIsda

melo

Ispole

Ako

adj

pro

adj

int

pro

adj

int

adj

int

Hiuʦɑθ

esɑ

ɑtɑxe

sitɑxe

olɑʦe

hoɲeɑ

ɑ́xikileʃnɑ

ulefʃinɑ

hɑʃose

ʦetilo

mekuse

θeome

θeeme

liku

meθelo

sifso

oʃnisθume (filoθ–)

toθmeθ

lɑɲe

monɑ

moɸkuseɑθ

meɲi

mɑle

mose

huɸe

pɑisθɑ

melo

ispole

ɑko

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ147

English

wide

wife

will

wind

window (rel. to ‘see’ and
‘through’)

wing

winter (lit. ‘snow season’)

wipe

wire

wise

wish

wish, want, desire

with (+COM)

with (+INST)

POS

adj

prep

hiUzad

laIde

luneA

dileme

dileta

behe

cidah

Ajeca

Hiuʦɑθ

lɑiθe

luneɑ

θileme

θiletɑ

ɸehe

ʃiθɑh

ɑŋeʃɑ

sanaloEjosdo

sɑnɑloeɲosθo

kise

ziji

sobiA

taxaja

sitaxe

xamo

xabe

kise

ʦiɲi

soɸiɑ

tɑxɑɲɑ

sitɑxe

xɑmo

xɑɸe

JESSIE SAMS148

hiUzad

Aftale

Ahne

Ahbeh

Ako

Ala

Alelo

AleO

Alexo

AlexoAd

Alede

AlediA

Alikadi

Aliza

Ameli

Anibte

Aniso

Anixo

Ano

Agela

Ajeca

AbAta

Able

Abto

Hiuʦɑθ-English Dictionary

Hiuʦɑθ

POS English

ɑfθɑle

ɑhne

ɑhɸeh

ɑko

ɑlɑ

ɑlef

ɑlelo

ɑleo

ɑlexo

ɑlexoɑθ

ɑleθe

ɑleθiɑ

ɑlikɑθi

ɑliʦɑ

ɑmeli

ɑniɸte

ɑniso

ɑnixo

ɑno

ɑŋelɑ

ɑŋeʃɑ

ɑpole

ɑɸɑtɑ

ɑɸle

ɑɸto

goodbye (rel. to ‘end’)

adj

eight

int

God (‘Yahweh’)

why

dem that

ɑlef

lake

dem that-there

work

machine (nom. of ‘work’)

love

love (rel. to verb form)

fly

puddle

friend

place

conj

because

clock

conj

but

cook

wing

period, final punctuation

pro

they (inanimate)

grunt worker

pro

it (inanimate)

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθHiuʦɑθ

POS English

149

hiUzad

Abxibade

Afde

Asaja

AsajaIdo

Aseja

Acela

Acka

Actaga

Acto

Acdega

Ataxe

Ate

Azeli

Azomeli

Azomi

AxihaO

Axikilecna

AxiliIspole

Aximonac

AximonacIdo

AxisanafiO

ɑ́ɸxiɸɑθe

ɑ́ɸθe

ɑsɑɲɑ

ɑsɑɲɑiθo

ɑseɲɑ

ɑʃ

ɑʃ … ɑʃ

ɑʃelɑ

ɑʃkɑ

ɑʃtɑŋɑ

ɑʃto

ɑʃθeŋɑ

ɑtɑxe

ɑte

ɑʦeli

ɑʦomeli

ɑʦomi

ɑ́xihɑo

ɑ́xikileʃnɑ

ɑ́xiliispole

ɑ́ximonɑʃ

ɑ́ximonɑʃiθo

ɑxisɑnɑfio

Axisanahe

ɑxisɑnɑhe

human with Gift (lit. ‘Gifted thing’)

thing (deh. of ‘one’)

think

thought

salt

conj

and

conj

both … and

adj

old

adj

face

crazy

sad

block

want, desire (rel. to ‘wish’)

hear

star

breathe (rel. to ‘air’)

air

swell (ver. of ‘big’)

wash (ver. of ‘clean’)

split (ver. of ‘partial’)

isolate (self-imposed) (lit. ‘make
alone’)

isolation

awe (+GEN) (used only for nega-
tive awe: ‘Her anger awed me’) (lit.
‘make silent’) (cannot be passive)

awe (+GEN) (used only for positive
awe: ‘Her courage awed me’) (lit.
‘make silent’) (cannot be passive)

JESSIE SAMS150

hiUzad

Axizadelo

Axno

Axofa

Axzi

Axdeno

Adake

Adne

Adu

Efeni

Efdo

Ehi

Ehioc

Ekafela

Elasa

ElasaIdo

Elasade

Elena

Elenade

Eledo

EliA

Elija

Eliza

Elixe

ElixeIdo

Elo

Eloxo

Hiuʦɑθ

POS English

ɑ́xiʦɑθelo

express

ɑxno

ɑxofɑ

ɑxʦi

ɑxθeno

ɑθɑke

ɑθne

ɑθu

efeni

efθo

ehi

ehioʃ

ekɑfelɑ

elɑsɑ

elɑsɑiθo

elɑsɑθe

elenɑ

elenɑθe

eleθo

eliɑ

eliɲɑ

eliʦɑ

elixe

elixeiθo

elo

eloxo

adj

boring

sin, wrong (+GEN)

adj

sick

person who states the obvious

greater good

tool

help

happen, occur

adj

left

price (metaphorical use)

debt

strength (mental, ability to last; rel.
to ‘stamina’)

judge

judgment

judge

lead

Elder (nom. of ‘lead’)

leader (nom. of ‘lead’)

trust

space

peace

add

experiment

int

how

fact

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθHiuʦɑθ

POS English

151

eneso

eɲɑ

eɲo

eɲosθɑnɑ

eɲosθo

eŋɑ

eŋenosɑ

eolɑ

epɑoʃi

eɸɑli

eɸestɑ

esɑ

esi

esisolɑ

espo

eʃɑ

eʃtɑ

etɑ

etɑɸe

etinoh

eʦɑf

eʦimɑ

eθɑíleθɲe

eθɑpofte

éθɑsolɑ

eθmɑθo

fɑ

fɑɑɸne

adj

eleven

eɲɑ

year

generation (rel. to ‘year’)

season

eŋɑ

measure

adj

empty

ashes

adj

secret (rel. to (n) & (v) forms)

adv

next, after that (rel. to ‘after’)

wall

dem this

adj

today

buy

eʃɑ

provide

etɑ

stick

disappear

body

symbol

dangerous

frequent

everyday

seem

inter

cry of disbelief

adj

bad (of objects)

hiUzad

Eneso

Ejo

Enosdana

Ejosdo

Ejenosa

EOla

EpaOci

Ebali

Ebesta

Esa

Esi

Esisola

Espo

Ecta

Etabe

Etinoh

Ezaf

Ezima

EdaIledje

Edapofte

Edasola

Edmado

faAbne

JESSIE SAMS152

hiUzad

faE

faEh

fahale

fahacde

fahote

fahotebide

fahotetabiha

fahotexibad

fahozoli

fahozu

fahode

fala

faliA

faze

faci

faco

fadano

fehota

fela

fex

Hiuʦɑθ

POS English

fɑe

fɑeh

fɑhɑle

fɑhɑʃθe

fɑhote

fɑhoteɸiθe

fɑhotetɑɸihɑ

fɑhotexiɸɑθ

fɑhoʦoli

fɑhoʦu

fɑhoθe

fɑlɑ

fɑliɑ

fɑse

fɑʃi

fɑʃo

fɑθɑno

fehotɑ

felɑ

fex

adj

bad (for people)

liver

adj

different

devil

adj

wrong, false

imposter; implies non-volitional or
accidental (lit. ‘false flower’)

root of a problem (bad seed, bad
apple); implies non-volitional or ac-
cidental (lit. ‘false tree’)

human Gift (lit. ‘false Gift’)

turn (metaphorical: ‘go bad’)

evil

inter

cry of anger, similar to English
‘bullshit’; only used in extreme cir-
cumstances (lit. ‘bad gods’, from the
hoθe borrowed from Greek)

adv

now

wagon

adj

worse

marvel (at) (+DAT) (used only for
negative marveling: ‘I marveled at
her stupidity’) (lit. ‘bad’ and ‘see’)
(cannot be passive)

adj

dull

brother

bug (e.g., mite, lice, bed bug)

hit

dust

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ153

POS English

prep to, toward (+ACC); into (+LOC);

until (+DAT)

come (rel. to ‘to’)

conj

until

carry

bag (dev. of ‘carry’)

pants

storm (rel. to ‘weather’ and ‘con-
fuse’)

confuse

humility

adj

humble

hɑ

earth, world, planet

need

great-granddaughter

terrify

terror

daughter

student (rel. to ‘daughter’)

clay

dirt (rel. to ‘ground’, ‘earth’,
‘brown’)

Hiuʦɑθ

filoθ

filoθne

filoθo

fimɑle

fimɑleɑθ

finelo

fiomeθ

fioʦɑ

folite

foliʦiɑ

hɑ

hɑispo

hɑlɑθɑ

hɑleɑ

hɑleθo

hɑleθoiθo

hɑlone

hɑlosne

hɑluɸne

hɑlus

hɑmilɑθɑ

adj

purple

hɑne

hɑo

hɑpɑθ

hɑsɑnɑ

hɑsunɑ

shirt

adj

big

ground (rel. to ‘earth’)

aux must

tomorrow

hiUzad

filod

filodne

filodo

fimale

fimaleAd

finelo

fiOmed

fiOza

folite

foliziA

haIspo

halada

haleA

haledo

haledoIdo

halone

halosne

halubne

halus

hamilada

hane

haO

hapad

hasana

hasuna

JESSIE SAMSHiuʦɑθ

POS English

154

hiUzad

haca

hacelo

hacose

hacde

hades

heleca

helotase

hemala

hemid

hepad

hebdaIdo

hifte

hihaca

hiIspoxa

hiladone

hiloze

hibe

hibtaca

hibza

hibzade

hibzima

hisebdo

hɑʃɑ

hɑʃelo

hɑʃose

hɑʃθe

hɑθes

heleʃɑ

helotɑse

hemɑlɑ

hemiθ

hepɑθ

heɸθɑiθo

hifte

hihɑʃɑ

hiispoxɑ

hilɑθone

hiloʦe

hiɸe

hiɸtɑʃɑ

hiɸʦɑ

hiɸʦɑθe

hiɸʦimɑ

hiseɸθo

hicomecne

hiʃomeʃne

hiza

hizad

hize

hizeja

hiʦɑ

hiʦɑθ

hiʦe

hiʦeɲɑ

rain (downpour)

flow (rel. to ‘water’)

water

adj

tired

prep in, at (+LOC)

push

gift, present

born

blood

adj

heavy

honor, respect

cane

ocean

universe (collective unit of Creator,
world, spirits, souls)

great-grandmother

hill

forgive (+DAT)

side (opposition) (rel. to ‘against’)

prep against (+DAT)

adj

argue (rel. to ‘against’)

oppose (rel. to ‘against’, ‘idea’)

special

perfect

rise

east (rel. to ‘rise’)

freeze (rel. to ‘ice’)

ice

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθhiUzad

hiUsme

hiUc

hiUze

hiUzefaE

hiUzeIbune

hiUzebehe

hiUzezadeIdo

hofaze

honesda

hojeA

hockelame

hockelacti

hocte

hode

hukazo

hukazoido

hulecda

hube

IAbne

IEsu kalisto

Ifepa

IfepaAbde

IfepaIdo

IfepaIdolobos

Ifpa

Ifto

Hiuʦɑθ

hiusme

hiuʃ

hiuʦe

hiuʦefɑe

hiuʦeiɸune

hiuʦeɸehe

hiuʦeʦɑθeiθo

hofɑse

honesθɑ

hoɲeɑ

hoʃkelɑme

hoʃkelɑʃti

hoʃte

hoθe

hukɑʦo

hukɑʦoiθo

huleʃθɑ

huɸe

iɑɸne

iesu kalisto

ifepɑ

ifepɑɑɸθe

ifepɑiθo

ifepɑiθoloɸos

ifpɑ

ifto

155

POS English

adj

important (rel. to ‘superior’)

adv

very (rel. to ‘superior’)

adj

best, superior, superlative

abominable (lit. ‘most bad’)

holy, sacred (lit. ‘most good’)

tornado (lit. ‘superior wind’)

language of Gifteds (lit. ‘superior
language’)

worst

red

warm

boast

pride

adj

hot

inter

cry of anger or frustration (borrowed
from Greek ‘hoi theoi’)

play

game (nom. of ‘play’)

adj

yellow

whisper

adj

good (of objects)

Jesus Christ

believe

talisman (lit. ‘believe thing’)

belief

religion (lit. ‘belief system’)

adj

fat

adv

perhaps, maybe (rel. to ‘probable’)

JESSIE SAMSHiuʦɑθ

POS English

156

hiUzad

Iftonga

Iko

Iledje

Iledo

Imud

Ijes

Ijusdo

Igale

Igaxime

Igos

Ibote

iftoŋɑ

iko

ileθɲe

ileθo

imute

imuθ

iɲes

iɲusθo

iŋɑle

iŋɑxime

iŋos

iotɑ

iɸote

IbotenosaIdo

Ibci

iɸotenosɑiθo

iɸʃi

adj

probable (rel. to ‘maybe’)

angry

danger

endanger

comma, colon, mid-punctuation

list

touch

build (rel. to ‘hand’)

adj

crooked

adj

dream

insect

iotɑ

right (correct), true

eighty-four (lit. ‘right/true number’)

marvel (at) (+DAT) (used only for
positive marveling: ‘I marveled at
her courage’) (lit. ‘good’ and ‘see’)
(cannot be passive)

Ibune

Ibuja

Ibdage

Islu

Isjesagelo

Isolate

Ispole

Ista

Istane

Isdu

Icone

iɸune

iɸuɲɑ

iɸθɑŋe

islu

adj

good (for people)

holy

adj

same

adv

too

isɲesɑŋelo

adj

smart (rel. to ‘know’)

isolɑte

ispole

istɑ

istɑɲe

isθu

iʃone

mess up, goof up

adj

all, whole

intend (to do)

mean

prep for, on account of, due to (+DAT)

hello (rel. to ‘begin’)

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθhiUzad

Icto

Izima

Izimagi

Izo

Izuka

Ixtole

IxtoleAd

Idone

kafe

kafeA

kafeIsped

kafeIspo

kafelih

kafelo

kafeno

kala

kalena

kalidoga

kanec

kaga

kagime

kagimede

fabicne

kazame

kada

Hiuʦɑθ

iʃto

iʦimɑ

iʦimɑŋi

iʦo

iʦukɑ

ixtole

ixtoleɑθ

iθne

kɑfe

kɑfeɑ

kɑfeispeθ

kɑfeispo

kɑfelih

kɑfelo

kɑfeno

kɑlɑ

kɑlenɑ

kɑliθoŋɑ

kɑneʃ

kɑŋɑ

kɑŋime

kɑŋimeθe

kɑpɑ

kɑɸiʃne

kɑʦɑme

kɑθɑ

157

POS English

adj

respected one; term of respect

idea

squeeze

cheap (metaphorical use: ‘no big-
gie’)

scratch

catch

net, glove (nom. of ‘catch’)

adj

easy

adj

last (rel. to ‘stamina’, ‘endure’,
‘durability’)

endure

durability (rel. to ‘endure’)

long-lasting

lasting

energy

stamina

grain

eighty-four-year cycle; calendar

map

iron

yesterday

create

God (lit. ‘creator’)

kɑpɑ

understand

read

head

JESSIE SAMS158

hiUzad

kejec

kesme

kiE

kilecna

kigaco

kipod

kise

kisne

kiza

kolasa

komac

komacad

konila

kojesida

kociA

kupecne

kucezama

kucteA

laIde

laje

lajehalus

lajene

lase

lasha

lasna

laca

lacakad

Hiuʦɑθ

POS English

keɲeʃ

kesme

kie

kileʃnɑ

kiŋɑʃo

kipoθ

kise

kisne

kiʦɑ

kolɑsɑ

komɑʃ

komɑʃɑθ

konilɑ

koɲesiθɑ

koʃiɑ

kupeʃne

kuʃeʦɑmɑ

kuʃteɑ

lɑiθe

lɑmɑ

lɑɲe

lɑɲehɑlus

lɑɲenɑ

lɑse

lɑshɑ

lɑsnɑ

lɑʃɑ

land (singular only–mass noun)

mold, shape, train

sub

(marker)

adj

clean

glass

adj

dry

wipe

cover

adj

sharp

tongue

eat

plate (nom. of ‘eat’)

colony

adj

indigo

cat

adj

lazy

forget (rel. to ‘lose’ and ‘memory’)

lose

adj

wide

lɑmɑ

adj

wet

mud (lit. ‘wet dirt’)

rain (gentle rain)

taste

lick

suck

lɑʃɑkɑθ

adv

already

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθhiUzad

lace

laceta

lacetade

ladese

ladone

leAlelo

lehalone

lehihaca

lehibzade

leI

leIpo

leIzima

lekejec

lelotec

lelune

leno

lejeho

leOjele

lepujela

lesebe

lesimeja

lesupe

letabiha

159

Hiuʦɑθ

lɑʃe

POS English

conj

lɑʃe … lɑʃe

conj

either … or

lɑʃetɑ

lɑʃetɑθe

lɑθese

lɑθone

léɑlelo

léhɑlone

léhihɑʃɑ

léhiɸʦɑθe

lei

leipo

léiʦimɑ

lékeɲeʃ

léloteʃ

lélune

leno

léɲeho

léoɲele

lépuɲelɑ

leseɸe

lésimeɲɑ

lesupe

létɑɸihɑ

advise

advisor (nom. of ‘advise’)

certainty

grandmother

pond (dim. of ‘lake’)

granddaughter (dim. of ‘daughter’)

sea (dim. of ‘ocean’)

squabble (dim. of ‘argue’)

adj

small

few

example (dim. of ‘idea’)

island (dim. of ‘land’)

path (dim. of ‘road’)

girl

adj

narrow

cushion (dim. of ‘bed’)

stream (dim. of ‘river’)

clique, team (dim. of ‘group’)

respect

worm (dim. of ‘snake’)

respect (rel. to verb form)

branch (dim. of ‘tree’)

proverb, saying, anecdote (dim. of
‘fable’)

have

page, paper (dim. of ‘book’)

letinofizasdelos

létinofiʦɑsθelos

leto

lezamecpodu

leto

léʦɑmeʃpoθu

JESSIE SAMS160

hiUzad

lexapone

lexespo

lexifdelo

lexdo

ledelune

ledlo

ledola

ledoca

leduloc

lifa

lifeO

liIspole

liku

libe

lisulaja

lisune

licodemo

lizumu

lizumuIdo

lofa

lofadne

loOcne

lobos

losneku

loteci

lotipoce

Hiuʦɑθ

POS English

léxɑpone

lexespo

léxifθelo

lexθo

léθelune

leθlo

leθolɑ

leθoʃɑ

léθuloʃ

lifɑ

lifeo

líispole

liku

liɸe

lisulɑɲɑ

lisune

líʃoθemo

liʦumu

liʦumuiθo

lofɑ

lofɑθne

looʃne

loɸos

losneku

loteʃi

lotipoʃe

boy

annoy

fog (dim. of ‘cloud’)

adj

right

child (dim. of ‘person’)

baby

adj

soft

adj

scare

room (dim. of ‘house’)

care (rel. to ‘careful’)

careful

partial, part of (dim. of ‘all/whole’)

weak

lip

music (rel. to ‘joy’)

bless

adj

cute (dim. of ‘beautiful’)

pulse

pulse, pulsation, rhythm

adv

away

prep away, from (+ACC); out of

(+ABL)

leave (rel. to ‘away’)

order

system

rope

road

bottle

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθhiUzad

loxma

loxos

luE

lufne

lume

lune

luneA

luOgo

lubitos

luseja

lusi

lusiA

lusile

luda

ludeli

ludmes

maEc

maIpo

malajelo

malabid

malac

malaca

malacaido

malaclox

malacti

Hiuʦɑθ

loxmɑ

loxos

lu-

lue

lufne

lume

lune

luneɑ

luoŋo

luɸitos

luseŋɑ

lusi

lusiɑ

lusile

luθɑ

luθeli

luθmes

mɑeʃ

mɑipo

mɑlɑɲelo

mɑlɑɸiθ

mɑlɑʃ

mɑlɑʃɑ

mɑlɑʃɑiθo

mɑlɑʃlox

mɑlɑʃti

161

POS English

order (put in order)

reason

optative mood

adj

feminine, female

expect

moon

woman

wife

dress

adj

stupid

adj

like (used generally with objects or
clauses; expresses preference)

dance (rel. to ‘joy’)

please (+DAT) (‘it pleases me’)

joy

content

happy, glad

month (rel. to ‘moon’)

throw

adj many

life cycle

fruit (rel. to ‘life’ and ‘flower’)

root (rel. to ‘life’)

live

life (a person’s life from birth to
death) (nom. of ‘live’)

purpose (life’s purpose)

adj

healthy (rel. to ‘live’)

JESSIE SAMS162

hiUzad

malaxe

male

maleOsde

malec

maca

mackala

madane

mado

meAs

mefeO

mehole

mekuse

melo

meloOsde

melufna

menalef

meji

mejiOsde

mego

meOc

mebaliza

mesaco

meseI

mezi

mexes

mexo

Hiuʦɑθ

mɑlɑxe

mɑle

mɑleosθe

mɑleʃ

mɑʃɑ

mɑʃkɑlɑ

mɑθɑne

mɑθo

meɑs

mefeo

mehole

mekuse

melo

meloosθe

melufnɑ

menɑlef

meɲi

POS English

int

pro

adj

int

pro

adj

int

life (general–no beginning and end)

where

somewhere (lit. ‘where some’)

ripe

bring

bread

mother

wrist

choose

dig

way, method

who

someone (lit. ‘who some’)

enough

circle (lit. ‘one line’)

when

meɲiosθe

pro

sometime (lit. ‘when some’)

meŋo

meoʃ

meɸɑliʦɑ

mesɑʃo

mesei

meʦi

mexes

mexo

chair

sit

secrecy

fulfill

stay, remain

corner

mid-day break; lunch

prep around (+LOC); (go) around

(+ACC); concerning, about
(+DAT); out and around (+ABL)

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ163

POS English

competence, ability

adj middle

weather

noon/midday (lit. ‘mid-day’)

belly

aux

should

nourish, satisfy (personally, emotion-
ally)

mouth

mediate, communicate

spirit (being with no form)

adj

real

adj

task (rel. to ‘work’)

twenty-one (sacred form; used only
when referring to life cycles)

schadenfreude, happiness (at an-
other’s expense)

Hiuʦɑθ

meθɑlu

meθɑo

meθelo

meθsolɑ

miɑte

mifne

milo

miɸɑ

miʦɑθe

miθkelis

miθoliʃne

moɑlexte

moɑʃoɲelo

moluθnɑ

monɑ

int

what

monɑosθe

pro

something (lit. ‘what some’)

monɑʃ

mone

moneθo

moɸkuse

moɸkuseɑθ

moɸule

moɸuleɑθ

mose

mosŋe

moθeɑtɑx

adj

alone

one

only

roll

wheel (nom. of ‘roll’)

move

vehicle (nom. of ‘move’)

pro which

mountain

ambition (lit. ‘self want’)

hiUzad

medalu

medaO

medelo

medsola

miAte

mifne

milo

miba

mizade

midkelis

midolicne

moAlexte

moAcojelo

moludna

mona

monaOsde

monataheO

mone

monedo

mobkuse

mobkusead

mobule

mobuleAd

mose

mosje

modeAtax

JESSIE SAMS164

hiUzad

modelace

mujeka

mujekalih

muju

muce

mucti

nabi

nabde

nazulix

neAbde

nef

neni

nebda

nebdali

nesi

nespo

necafo

neci

nedah

nile

nib

nibe

nisli

nisdu

noI

nolef

nolid

Hiuʦɑθ

POS English

moθelɑʃe

muɲekɑ

volition (lit. ‘self do’)

interest (+DAT)

muɲekɑlih

adj

interesting (part. of ‘interest’)

muɲu

muʃe

muʃti

nɑɸi

nɑɸθe

nɑʦulix

neɑɸθe

nef

neni

neɸθɑ

neɸθɑli

nesi

nespo

neʃɑfo

neʃi

neθɑh

nile

niɸ

niɸe

nisli

nisθu

noi

nolef

noliθ

use

mouse

adj

sour

feather

swim

adv

of course

adj

zero, nothing, none (lit. ‘no thing’)

line

adj

nine

worth, value (rel. to ‘expensive’)

adj

expensive (metaphorical use)

adv

there

adv

then (opposite of ‘now’)

adj mean

adj

door (rel. to ‘go’ and ‘through’)

try

put

take

make

new, young

first

hide

north

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ165

POS English

open

key (nom. of ‘open’)

count

number (nom. of ‘count’)

hate

lie (down)

brain

evening (hours just before and after
the sun sets) (rel. to ‘night’, ‘before’,
‘moon’)

dinner, evening ceremony

night (hours between twilight and
dawn)

Hiuʦɑθ

nomɑxɑ

nomɑxɑɑθ

nosɑ

nosɑiθo

noʃte

noθɑ

nuleθ

nuʦume

nuxes

nuθne

ɲɑlɑʃe … ɲɑlɑʃe

conj

neither … nor

ɲɑ́ʦoske

adj

neutral (lit. ‘no color’)

ɲe-

ɲeho

ɲeis

ɲeɸilɑ

ɲesikɑ

ɲi

ɲimɑŋɑ

ɲime

ɲixes

ɲoʃeli

ɲue

ɲulɑθo

negation

bed

hat

faith

loyalty

dawn; hours of the morning just
before and as the sun rises

adv

indeed

morning ceremony; breakfast

lizard

give

hold (rel. to ‘hand’)

hiUzad

nomaxa

nomaxaAd

nosa

nosaIdo

nocte

noda

nuled

nuzume

nuxes

nudne

jalace

jazoske

jeho

jeIs

jebila

jesika

jimaga

jime

jixes

joceli

juE

julado

JESSIE SAMS166

hiUzad

juladoAd

jupasla

jusa

juzahme

juxile

juduO

gaI

gale

gac

gaxamo

gaxabe

gaxo

gaxozo

gadale

geI

gelaIlo

geO

gexi

gimas

giba

gibaIdo

gulafe

gulo

oftasu

Hiuʦɑθ

POS English

ɲulɑθoɑθ

ɲupɑslɑ

ɲusɑ

ɲuʦɑhme

ɲuxile

ɲuθuo

ŋɑi

ŋɑle

ŋɑʃ

ŋɑ́xɑmo

ŋɑ́xɑɸe

ŋɑxo

ŋɑxoʦo

ŋɑ́θɑle

ŋei

ŋelɑilo

ŋeo

ŋexi

ŋimɑs

ŋiɸɑ

ŋiɸɑiθo

ŋulɑfe

ŋulo

oftɑʃu

box (nom. of ‘hold’)

adj

every

hand

grant, bestow (rel. to ‘give’ and
‘answer’)

humor, hilarity

do crafts, sew, draw, knit

neg

not (dec.)

adj

long

edge

prep without (lit. ‘not with’) (+COM)

prep without (lit. ‘not with’) (+INST)

worry

demon (spirit with ability to inhabit
bodies)

adj

forever (lit. ‘no end’)

neg

not (imp.)

law

smell

regret

stand

control

adj

free

adj

free, release

allow

ugly (of objects)

ugly (of people)

OkeAbma

Okepa

okeɑɸmɑ

okepɑ

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθhiUzad

Okesa

Okexame

Olaze

Olaxe

Olis

Omeli

Omos

Onise

Ojele

Ojed

Ogefzu

Obale

Obade

olɑʦe

olɑxe

olis

omekɑ

omeli

omos

onise

oɲele

oɲeθ

oŋefʦu

oɸɑle

oɸɑθe

167

Hiuʦɑθ

POS English

okesɑ

okexɑme

keep

adj

ugly (of nature)

war

spill, let loose, let go

wake

omekɑ

marry

conj

though

neck

river

fall

destroy

egg

eye

awaken, become aware (lit. ‘eye
wake’)

spirituality

ObadeOlis

oɸɑθeolis

ObadeOlisIdo

ObadeOlislih

Osa

Osedme

OskeOte

Osde

Oce

Ocnisdume

Ocdele

Ocdule

OcduleAd

oɸɑθeolisiθo

oɸɑθeolislih

adj

spiritual

osɑ

oseθme

oskeote

osθe

oʃe

pro

adj

cry

pull

vomit

some, any (unknown entity)

difficult

oʃnisθume (filoθ–)

welcome to —

oʃθele

oʃθule

oʃθuleɑθ

oʦe

shame

cut

knife (nom. of ‘cut’)

oʦe

JESSIE SAMS168

hiUzad

Odale

Hiuʦɑθ

oθɑle

Odefahotebide

oθefɑhoteɸiθe

Odefahotetabiha

oθefɑhotetɑɸihɑ

pahe

pahesda

pahta

paIs

paIsda

pala

paOc

paOcdamo

pabe

pacme

paco

pacole

pacolido

padane

peA

peAcke

peliA

pelice

peliceAd

pebo

pɑhe

pɑhesθɑ

pɑhtɑ

pɑis

pɑisθɑ

pɑlɑ

pɑoʃ

pɑoʃθɑmo

pɑɸe

pɑʃme

pɑʃo

pɑʃole

pɑʃoliθo

pɑθɑne

peɑ

peɑʃke

peliɑ

peliʃe

peliʃeɑθ

peɸo

POS English

ear

imposter; implies volitional or pur-
poseful (lit. ‘false flower’)

root of a problem (bad seed, bad
apple); implies volitional or purpose-
ful (lit. ‘false tree’)

bark (rel. to ‘brown’)

adj

brown

adj

wood

light (for shades/hues)

white

adv

here

fire

burn (rel. to ‘fire’)

aux may

adj

attract, charm

attraction, charm, magnetism

magnet (rel. to ‘attract’)

attractive, sexy (unexplainable at-
tractiveness or magnetism)

father

skin

fight (for fighting’s sake); verbal or
physical

squirrel

tempt

temptation

fight (with good reason); verbal or
physical

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθhiUzad

peca

pecame

pecamede

pecazone

pecle

pecne

petas

pezali

pezuci

pezuciAd

pedme

pedsa

pofte

polisko

poned

puje

pujela

pujeO

bale

Hiuʦɑθ

peʃɑ

peʃɑme

peʃɑmeθe

peʃɑʦone

peʃle

peʃne

petɑs

peʦali

peʦuʃi

peʦuʃiɑθ

peθme

peθsɑ

pofte

polisko

poneθ

puɲe

puɲelɑ

puɲeo

ɸɑle

balemalajelo

balecinacoluda

ɸɑlemɑlɑɲelo

ɸɑleʃinɑʃoluθɑ

baledle

balije

balibda

balice

balizo

ɸɑleθle

ɸɑliɲe

ɸɑliɸθɑ

ɸɑliʃe

ɸɑliʦo

169

POS English

adj

royal (rel. to ‘queen’)

adj

reign

queen (nom. of ‘reign’)

hierarchy (social)

rub

walk (rel. to ‘foot’)

foot

run (rel. to ‘foot’)

lock (nom. of ‘close’)

appear

fish

frequency

succeed

bone

sweetheart; term of endearment

group

foolish

four

eighty-four-year cycle (lit. ‘four life
cycle’)

be/get lucky (lit. ‘four find’; 4 is a
lucky/blessed number)

quarter (rel. to ‘four’)

quiet

square (rel. to ‘four’ and ‘same’)

secret

JESSIE SAMS170

hiUzad

basile

badsino

behamo

behe

besiO

besta

bestalo

biOca

biblu

bide

Hiuʦɑθ

ɸɑsile

ɸɑθsino

ɸehɑmo

ɸehe

ɸesio

ɸestɑ

POS English

kingdom

fascinate

blow (rel. to ‘wind’)

wind

mission

adv

behind

prep behind, after (+LOC)

ɸestɑlo

adj

next (rel. to ‘after’)

ɸi

ɸioʃɑ

ɸiɸlu

ɸiθe

bidenisdu

bideniduEjosdo

ɸiθenisθu

ɸiθeniθueɲosθo

bula

safela

saftune

saftunelih

sanafiO

sanahe

sanalo

ɸulɑ

sɑfelɑ

sɑftune

sɑftunelih

sɑnɑfio

sɑnɑhe

sɑnɑlo

sanaloEjosdo

sɑnɑloeɲosθo

saga

sagaIdo

saOx

satole

sɑŋɑ

sɑŋɑiθo

sɑox

sɑtole

ɸi

butterfly

adj

five

flower

bloom (lit. ‘new/young flower’)

spring (lit. ‘bloom season’)

table

drink

you’re welcome (lit. ‘accepted’)

adj

silent out of turmoil (shocked/con-
fused into silence) (rel. to ‘snow’
and FIO)

adj

silent (rel. to ‘snow’)

snow

winter (lit. ‘snow season’)

know

knowledge

leg

adj

straight

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθHiuʦɑθ

POS English

171

selɑ

selɑh

selɑθ

selefsɑ

seleθ

seli

seɲe

sepɑŋɑ

seɸme

seʃko

setilo

seθ

seθo

sife

sifso

sileɸ

simɑ

simeɲɑ

siŋe

sio

siole

siɸesto

sitɑxe

sixɑ

adj

some (used for vague reference)

prep on, over (+LOC); over (+ACC);

off of (+ABL) (‘jump off the table’)

adj

float

upper (rel. to ‘above’)

eternal (no beginning or end)

truth

adj

sweet

sing

smoke

learn

breast, chest

guts

adv

thus

adj

seven

week (rel. to ‘seven’ and ‘day’)

dragonfly

simɑ

snake

adj

great, grand

prep near (to) (+LOC)

adj

near

die (rel. to ‘after’)

want, wish, desire

adj

six

soeθɑpofte

adv

frequently, often

soéθɑsolɑ

adv

daily

hiUzad

sela

selah

selad

selefsa

seled

seli

seje

sepaga

sebme

secko

setilo

sed

sedo

sife

sifso

sileb

simeja

sige

siO

siOle

sibesto

sitaxe

sixa

soEdapofte

soEdasola

JESSIE SAMS172

hiUzad

sola

solec

solida

solud

someca

soja

sogaf

sopagu

sobiA

sose

socud

sulo

sulod

sumaI

suneO

sujeleb

sujelebad

sujelebido

sujeleblih

cahes

cakone

calef

cama

camalac

Hiuʦɑθ

POS English

solecEjosdo

soleʃeɲosθo

solɑ

soleʃ

soliθɑ

soluθ

someʃɑ

soɲɑ

soŋɑf

sopɑŋu

soɸiɑ

sose

soʃuθ

sulo

suloθ

sumɑe

suneo

suɲeleɸ

suɲeleɸɑθ

suɲeleɸiθo

suɲeleɸlih

ʃɑhes

ʃɑkone

ʃɑlef

ʃɑmɑ

adj

day; hours between dawn and twi-
light

sun

summer (lit. ‘sun season’)

soul, aura, spirit (collective of a
person’s character)

south

trip, journey, vacation

sleep

brick

dog

wise

smooth

dirty

prep under, below (+LOC); under

(+ACC); out from under (+ABL)

adj

lower (rel. to ‘below’)

lucky (only applicable to non-
Xiɸɑθeho)

stone

light

light (as in ‘turn on the light’)

light (as in ‘I see light’)

adj

light (for well-lit areas)

tail

obligation, duty (to Colony/society)

farm

adj

slow

ʃɑmɑlɑʃ

seed (rel. to ‘life’)

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθHiuʦɑθ

POS English

173

ʃɑmoθene

ʃɑnɑhe

ʃɑne

ʃɑteʃ

ʃɑule

ʃɑxɑne

ʃenɑsθɑ

ʃeʦo

ʃi

ʃiɑŋe

ʃikɑpe

ʃikɑto

ʃilete

ʃimɑ

ʃimono

ʃinɑ

ʃiθɑh

ʃolu

ʃoluho

ʃolutonɑ

ʃoluθɑ

ʃoluθle

ʃone

ʃoɲe

obligation, duty (to self)

obligation, duty (to role/title/job)

obligation, duty (general)

adj

full

hair

obligation, duty (to family)

adj

orange

sand

yes

hunt

sweetheart (term of endearment for a
small girl)

sweetheart (term of endearment for a
small boy)

protect

dress

clothes

see

find (lit. ‘see again’ (or ‘see twice’))

window (rel. to ‘see’ and ‘through’)

adj

two

twins (lit. ‘twos’)

adj

twelve (lit. ‘two ten’)

adv

again (lit. ‘twice’)

adj

half (rel. to ‘two’)

begin

fold

ʃoθeɑɸle

adj

beautiful (of objects)

hiUzad

camodene

canahe

cane

catec

caUle

caxane

cenasda

cezo

ciAge

cikape

cikato

cilete

cima

cimono

cina

cidah

colu

coluho

colutona

coluda

coludle

cone

coje

codeAble

cinacoluda

ʃinɑʃoluθɑ

JESSIE SAMS174

hiUzad

codemo

codemu

codexame

cudano

taAli

taheno

taheda

talizo

tamali

tajali

tabiha

tacali

taces

tacki

tackime

taxali

taxaja

tefale

tecfahote

tecliIspole

tiA

tiAkaledo

tiAta

timaci

Hiuʦɑθ

ʃoθemo

ʃoθemu

POS English

adj

beautiful (of people)

beauty (of people; often metaphori-
cal)

ʃoθexɑme

adj

beautiful (of nature)

ʃuθɑno

tɑ

tɑɑli

tɑheno

tɑheθɑ

tɑliʦo

tɑmɑli

tɑɲɑli

tɑɸihɑ

tɑʃɑli

tɑʃes

tɑʃki

tɑʃkime

tɑxɑli

tɑxɑɲɑ

tefɑle

teʃfɑhote

teʃliispole

tiɑ

tiɑkɑleθo

tiɑtɑ

timɑʃi

sister

tɑ

animal (large classification label)

hope (rel. to ‘hope’ (v.))

hope

manner

animal (forest (i.e., native) animal)

animal (wild (i.e., exotic/non-native)
animal)

tree

animal (farm animal)

adj

thousand

prep far (from) (+LOC)

adj

far

animal (house animal (i.e., pet/do-
mesticated))

wish

adj

alive

sin (nom. of ‘wrong’)

part (nom. of ‘partial’)

adj

short

pro

adj

diacritic (used for reduced form of
vowels)

it (animacy without volition)

normal

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθhiUzad

time

timeAd

tinofi

tinofiIdo

Hiuʦɑθ

time

timeɑθ

tinofi

tinofiiθo

tinofizasdelos

tinofiʦɑsθelos

tinofide

tisana

tixo

tofahad

tona

toxo

todme

todmed

zafeO

zafima

zafimade

zah

zahade

zahlome

zahje

zahjema

zahnida

zamano

zamas

tinofiθe

tisɑnɑ

tixo

tofɑhɑθ

tonɑ

toxo

toθme

toθmeθ

ʦɑ

ʦɑfeo

ʦɑfimɑ

ʦɑfimɑθe

ʦɑh

ʦɑhɑθe

ʦɑhlome

ʦɑhɲe

ʦɑhɲemɑ

ʦɑhɲiθɑ

ʦɑmɑno

ʦɑmɑs

zamaspodu

zamassuneO

ʦɑmɑspoθu

ʦɑmɑssuneo

175

POS English

drink

cup (nom. of ‘drink’)

teach

lesson (nom. of ‘teach’)

fable, parable (lit. ‘teach story’)

teacher

remedy, solution

adj

thin

down (as a direction)

adj

adv

ten

yet

set

west (rel. to ‘set’)

inter

a stall for time (like ‘um’)

hurt

deliver (rel. to ‘say’, ‘carry’)

angel (lit. ‘deliverer’)

int

(marker)

shout; (+DAT) shout to/at; (ditran-
sitive) shout X (to/at Y)

command, order

ask

pray, beseech

answer

remember

memory

letter (correspondence)

Stone (memory)

JESSIE SAMS176

hiUzad

zame

zameAd

zamelo

zameloIdo

zamecpodu

zajab

zajabo

zasdelos

zato

zaziO

zaziOde

zaUje

zaUjeIdo

zade

zadefah

zadefahno

zadefahnode

zadefahote

zadefahotede

zadefahde

zadeIdo

zademeO

zadhe

Hiuʦɑθ

ʦɑme

ʦɑmeɑθ

ʦɑmelo

ʦɑmeloiθo

ʦɑmeʃpoθu

ʦɑɲɑɸ

ʦɑɲɑɸo

ʦɑsθelos

ʦɑto

ʦɑʦio

ʦɑʦioθe

ʦɑuɲe

ʦɑuɲeiθo

ʦɑθe

ʦɑθefɑh

ʦɑθefɑhno

ʦɑθefɑhnoθe

ʦɑθefɑhote

ʦɑθefɑhoteθe

ʦɑθefɑhθe

ʦɑθeiθo

ʦɑθemeo

ʦɑθhe

POS English

write

pen (nom. of ‘write’)

record (keep track)

record (e.g., list of past events)

book

fear (related to ‘fear’ (v.))

fear

story

adj

hard

speak out of turn, say wrong thing at
the wrong time (lit. ‘fast speak’)

person known for speaking out of
turn or saying the wrong thing at the
wrong time

draw

picture (nom. of ‘draw’)

say, speak, tell

lie (accidental; e.g., telling a non-
truth because unaware of the full
story)

lie by withholding information

person known for being dubiously
vague

lie (intentional) (lit. ‘say false’)

person who cannot be trusted

person known for speaking without
knowing all the facts

language (nom. of ‘say’)

interpret, communicate, translate

call

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ177

hiUzad

zadheIdo

zadma

zadmas

zega

zeca

zetilo

zed

ziAmo

ziAmoIdo

zilago

ziji

ziO

zito

zoli

zomice

zoske

zoskeEjosdo

zuImane

zuce

zuco

tuAcmu

tuhane

tuladle

tuOlas

tuOmoca

Ufte

Ule

Hiuʦɑθ

POS English

ʦɑθheiθo

ʦɑθmɑ

ʦɑθmɑs

ʦeŋɑ

ʦeʃɑ

ʦetilo

name, label (nom. of ‘call’)

word

message

prep more than, better than, than

(+ACC)

arm

direction, way

ʦeθ … ʦeθ

conj

as … as … (‘as happy as a clam’)

ʦiɑmo

ʦiɑmoiθo

ʦilɑŋo

ʦiɲi

ʦio

ʦito

ʦoli

ʦomiʃe

ʦoske

ʦoskeeɲosθo

ʦuimɑne

ʦuʃe

ʦuʃo

tuɑʃmu

tuhɑne

tulɑθle

tuolɑs

tuomoʃɑ

ufte

ule

adj

pro

impact

difference (impact)

trade

wire

fast

they (animacy without volition)

turn (physical direction)

surprise, amaze

color

fall (lit. ‘color season’)

natural wonder; miracle

adv

still, and yet

prep in front of, before (+LOC)

butt

doubt

delight

servant

prison

adj

strange

conj

JESSIE SAMS178

hiUzad

Ulef

UlefAte

Hiuʦɑθ

ulef

ulefɑte

UlefAximonac

ulefɑximonɑʃ

Ulefsebme

Ulefsibesto

Ulefcina

ulefseɸme

ulefsiɸesto

ulefʃinɑ

Ulefcina mobuleIdo
solecsu A

ulefʃinɑ moɸuleiθo
soleʃsu ɑ

Ulefcone

Ulefxila

Ulefxizomone

Ulefxizocolu

UlefxizocoluIdo

Ulefdale

Ulicame

Umasida

Ujeza

Ujezade

Ujexa

Uge

Ucesne

Ucte

Uzane

Uze

ulefʃone

ulefxilɑ

ulefxiʦomone

ulefxiʦoʃolu

ulefxiʦoʃoluiθo

ulefθɑle

uliʃɑme

umɑsiθɑ

uɲeʦɑ

uɲeʦɑθe

uɲexɑ

uŋe

uselo

uʃesne

uʃte

utɑ

uʦɑne

uʦe

POS English

cause

listen (lit. ‘cause hear’)

isolate (other-imposed) (lit. ‘cause
make alone’)

study (lit. ‘cause learn’)

kill (lit. ‘cause die’)

look, watch (lit. ‘cause see’)

spend time (lit. ‘watch the sun’s
movement’)

greet (lit. ‘cause begin’)

joke (lit. ‘cause laugh’); tease
(+DAT)

single out (lit. ‘cause become one’)

copy, duplicate (lit. ‘cause become
two’)

picture (nom. of ‘copy’)

finish (lit. ‘cause end’)

point

adj

wonderful

sculpt, carve

sculpter, carver, potter

art

nose

uselo

offer

adj

rotten

utɑ

sell

adj

better, comparative

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ179

POS English

adj

inferior (used to describe someone
the speaker looks down on) (lit.
‘more bad’)

uppity (used to describe someone
who thinks they’re better than every-
one else) (lit. ‘more good’)

bird

adj

last, final

time

border, boundary (rel. to ‘final’ and
‘edge’)

side (of a shape or area; physical
location)

adv

together (rel. to ‘with’)

government (nom. of ‘together lead’)

meet (lit. ‘together come’)

adj

strong (muscular strength)

organizaed religion (lit. ‘together
religion’)

temple, Assembly Hall (rel. to
‘holy’)

grow (intransitive only)

commune

community, communion

council (nom. of ‘advise together’)

son

happiness

city (rel. to ‘together’ and ‘live’)

follow, obey (rel. to ‘with’)

prep with (+COM)

Hiuʦɑθ

uʦefɑe

uʦeiɸune

uʦekɑ

uʦimɑ

uʦimɑθ

uʦiŋɑʃ

uθ

xɑ

xɑelenɑiθo

xɑfiloθne

xɑfʦɑ

xɑifepɑiθo

xɑiɸɑɲe

xɑkɑθi

xɑlɑθɑ

xɑlɑθɑiθo

xɑleʃetɑiθo

xɑlone

xɑluθe

xɑmɑlɑ

xɑmeli

xɑmo

xɑmotɑheθɑ

please (lit. ‘with hope’)

hiUzad

UzefaE

UzeIbune

Uzeka

Uzima

Uzimad

Uzigac

xaElenaIdo

xafilodne

xafza

xaIfepaIdo

xaIbaje

xakadi

xalada

xaladaIdo

xalecetaIdo

xalone

xalude

xamala

xameli

xamo

xamotaheda

JESSIE SAMS180

hiUzad

xane

xaje

xajuE

xaOli

xaOlisda

xaOmed

xaOmedilo

xaOja

xaOc

xaOtab

xapone

xaponeO

xabe

xasebmeIdo

xazade

xazadeIdo

xazima

xad

xadane

xado

xeAh

xeIs

xeIsda

xelota

xeno

xepo

xepoleda

Hiuʦɑθ

POS English

xɑne

xɑɲe

xɑɲue

xɑoli

xɑolisθɑ

xɑomeθ

xɑomeθilo

xɑoɲɑ

xɑoʃ

xɑotɑɸ

xɑpone

xɑponeo

xɑɸe

xɑseɸmeiθo

xɑʦɑθe

xɑʦɑθeiθo

xɑʦimɑ

xɑθ

xɑθɑne

xɑθo

xeɑh

xeis

xeisθɑ

xelotɑ

xeno

xepo

adj masculine, male

building

tie (rel. to ‘together’ and ‘hand’)

grass (rel. to ‘green’)

adj

green

nature

science (rel. to ‘nature’)

leaf

field

woods, forest

man

husband

prep with (+INST)

adj

class (nom. of ‘learn together’)

talk, converse (lit. ‘together speak’)

conversation (nom. of ‘talk’)

support (rel. to ‘together’, ‘idea’)

muscle

family

meat

ankle

dark

black

get

hundred

outside (metaphorical sense of ‘ab-
normal’)

xepoleθɑ

ostracize, throw out

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ181

Hiuʦɑθ

POS English

xepoleθɑθe

outcast

hiUzad

xepoledade

xeb

xeso

xiA

xeɸ

xeso

xiɑ

xiAcdegaludmes

xiɑʃθeŋɑluθmes

xiElasda

xiEbo

xiEbod

xiEctaludmes

xifdelo

xila

xilaso

xilaza

xielɑsθɑ

xieɸo

xieɸoθ

xieʃtɑluθmes

xifθelo

xilɑ

xilɑso

xilɑʦɑ

ximɑlɑ

ximizadeludmes

ximobuleludmes

xinisliludmes

ximiʦɑθeluθmes

ximoɸuleluθmes

xinisliluθmes

xija

xije

xiɲɑ

xiɲe

xiOkesaludmes

xiOgefzuludmes

xiokesɑluθmes

xioŋefʦuluθmes

xibad

xibade

xis

xiɸɑθ

xiɸɑθe

xis

prep outside (of) (+LOC)

food

kiss (+DAT) (cannot be intransi-
tive)

November (lit. ‘block month’)

adj

blue

sky, heavens

up (as a direction)

March (lit. ‘provide month’)

cloud

laugh; (+DAT) laugh at

adj

funny

heal

sign of the Gifteds

September (lit. ‘mediate month’)

December (lit. ‘move month’)

January (lit. ‘make month’)

inter

cry of happiness/joy (often re-
peated with dropped last syllable:
xiɲɑxiɲɑxi!)

smile (rel. to ‘laugh’)

October (lit. ‘keep month’)

February (lit. ‘destroy month’)

Gift

Gifted

adj

cold

xicileteludmes

xiʃileteluθmes

June (lit. ‘protect month’)

JESSIE SAMS182

hiUzad

xicinaludmes

xicinacoludaludmes

xited

xizadeludmes

xizo

xiUc

xiUd

Hiuʦɑθ

POS English

xiʃinɑluθmes

July (lit. ‘see month’)

xiʃinɑʃoluθɑluθmes n

August (lit. ‘find month’)

xiteθ

xiʦɑθeluθmes

xiʦo

xiuʃ

xiuθ

talent, ability

May (lit. ‘interpret month’)

change, become

heart

prep beside, along, to the side, near

(+LOC); (go) along the side of
(+ACC)

xixilazaludmes

xixilɑʦɑluθmes

April (lit. ‘heal month’)

xoIf

xolado

xoli

xomelac

xulizace

xulize

dahilo

dahno

xoif

xolɑθo

xoli

xomelɑʃ

xuliʦɑʃe

xuliʦe

θɑhilo

θɑhno

dakinu

dakinuIdoho

θɑkinu

θɑkinuiθoho

dale

dalu

dane

dajo

daci

dackane

θɑle

θɑlu

θɑne

θɑɲo

θɑʃi

θɑʃkɑne

adj

rough

presence

trick

location

ritual (rel. to ‘tradition’)

tradition

back

prep through, across (+ACC); across
(+LOC) (e.g., ‘she is across the
river’)

thank

thank you (nom. of ‘thank’)

end

aux

can

adj

relative (often used when no specific
term is in the language: ‘uncle’,
‘step-sister’, etc.)

thick

other

fake

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθhiUzad

deAbma

deAta

deEme

dele

deleA

deleba

delese

delu

delune

deluta

dema

denotiA

deOme

desali

deseA

Hiuʦɑθ

θe

θeɑɸmɑ

θeɑtɑ

θeeme

θele

θeleɑ

θeleɸɑ

θelese

θelu

θelune

θelutɑ

θemɑ

θenotiɑ

θeome

θesɑli

θeseɑ

desmedsola

θesmeθsolɑ

desu

desuta

deto

deUme

deUs

dexo

dileme

dileta

dipule

θesu

θesutɑ

θetɑ

θeto

θeume

θeus

θexo

θileme

θiletɑ

θipule

183

POS English

pro

adj

pro

one (pronoun for ‘person’)

nice (of objects)

they (animacy with volition)

pro we (inclusive)

adj

pro

three

s/he (formal)

event

adj

kind (nice)

pro

adj

self

person

they (formal)

nice (for people–character trait)

lamentation, wail, threnody

pro we (exclusive)

treasure

pro

you (formal)

pro

afternoon (rel. to ‘after’ and ‘noon’)

you

you (formal, pl)

θetɑ

s/he (animacy with volition)

you (pl.)

god, lord

pro

will

diablerie, reckless mischief, charis-
matic wildness

JESSIE SAMSHiuʦɑθ

POS English

184

hiUzad

dicto

dita

dolita

θiʃto

θitɑ

θolitɑ

dolitaAxizadelo

θolitɑɑxiʦɑθelo

domi

domiIdo

dobaje

duloc

duneso

θomi

θomiiθo

θoɸɑɲe

θuloʃ

θuneso

bite (rel. to ‘tooth’)

tooth

soul (inner being released upon
death)

express intense emotion (lit. ‘soul
express’)

envy

shoe

house

adj

twelve (sacred form; only used when
referring to the families or Gifts)

A GRAMMAR OF HIUTSAθ

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