Constructed Language: An Analysis of the Phonemic

Constructed Language: An Analysis of the Phonemic
Sounds Influenced by Historical Stereotyping

Autor: Ashlie Devenney

MS-Datum: 05-30-2017

FL-Datum: 07-01-2017

FL-Nummer: FL-000046-00

Zitat: Devenney, Ashlie. 2017. ” Constructed

Sprache: An Analysis of the Phonemic
Sounds Influenced by Historical
Stereotyping.” FL-000046-00, Fiat Lingua,
. Netz. 01 July 2017.

Urheberrechte ©: © 2017 Ashlie Devenney. Dieses Werk ist lizenziert

unter einer Creative Commons Namensnennung-
NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unportierte Lizenz.

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/

Fiat Lingua is produced and maintained by the Language Creation Society (LCS). For more information
about the LCS, Besuchen Sie http://www.conlang.org/

.

1

Constructed Language: An Analysis of the Phonemic Sounds Influenced by Historical

Stereotyping

AP Research

10 April 2017

(Word Count: 4010)

2

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….4

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..5

Review of Literature………………………………………………………………………5

Constructed Languages……………………………………………………………5

Perception…………………………………………………………………………6

Media………………………………………………………………………………7

Construction of Constructed Languages…………………………………………………………9

Methods……………………………………………………………………………………9

Survey……..………..……………………………………,…………………..…..9

Statistical Analysis……..……………………………………………………..9

Transcription…………………………………………………………..….………11

Results and Discussion……………………………………………………………………12

Black Speech Phonology Comparison………………………………………..….13

Sindarin Phonology Comparison………………………………………………15

Klingon Phonology Comparison……..………………………………………….15

Shiväisith………………………………………………………………………15

Conclusion and Future Discussion……………………………………………………….16

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….16

Significance……………………………………………………………………16

Limitations…………………………………………………………………….17

Delimitations…….………………………………………….…………………17

Future Directions….……………….…………………………………………..18

Acknowledgements………….…………..……………………………………………..19

Appendix……………………………………….………………………………………20

Works Cited………………………….……………………………………………….21

3

ABSTRACT

4

The perception of constructed languages in film is not a topic that has been researched

extensively in the past due to the scrutiny concerning the field of constructed languages as a

valid field of study. An understanding of how humankind perceives constructed languages is

vital in our understanding of how natural languages are perceived. The purpose of this research is

to examine how the base phonemic sounds of a language (particularly constructed languages)

affect how the listener hears and perceives a constructed language as well as how and why this

perception is constructed. This study is done through a survey consisting of several languages

wherein the participant rates the languages on certain qualities which establish how the

participant feels towards the language. The research finds that a historical relationship between

the beginnings of language construction and the listener’s perception of that language,

discovered through an analysis of the phonemic sounds, exists in both constructed and natural

languages. This finding will help those who create constructed languages determine what sounds

need to consistently occur for their language to be perceived according to intention.

5

INTRODUCTION

Constructed languages are often used in science fiction films to highlight the personalities of the

characters who speak them. Aber, how our perception of these characters is influenced by

their respective constructed language has yet to have been explored. To enhance the

understanding of natural human language and how we perceive it, we can analyze how

perceptions of constructed languages are influenced by their phonemic idiosyncrasies which may

inform writers in the creation of a constructed language that best represents a particular character

to an audience. Clive Upton conducted a study similar to this one wherein he determined that

accents are discriminated against based on aesthetic grounds (Upton). In this research, I focus on

how the phonemic sounds of a constructed language affect how the audience perceives the

language, and how that relates to historical circumstances. I attempt to advance the idea that

accents are discriminated against based on aesthetic grounds, by concluding that individual

phonemic sounds affect the perception of language, specifically those languages which do not

occur naturally, through a survey.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Constructed Languages

Even though the popularity of constructed languages has skyrocketed as science fiction

films have become increasingly popular within the last decade, the study of constructed

languages is not as new of a field as some may believe. There is a rich history of the creation of

constructed languages dating back to 600 BCE (Eco), including the legendary origins of the Irish

language. The legend tells of a man named Fenius Farsaid, WHO, along with 72 fellow scholars,

traveled from Scythia to the Plain of Shinar to study the languages that were confused at

Nimrod’s tower (commonly known as the Tower of Babel) (Nyland). After discovering that

6

these languages were spread throughout the world, Farsaid sent out the scholars to study the

languages which were dispersed (Nyland). Zehn Jahre später, the scholars returned with their

findings and Farsaid, with the help of these scholars, took the most favored parts of each of the

languages and created what he referred to as “in Berla tobaide” or “the selected language,” which

he then began calling Goidelc (Nyland). Though the creation of this language is only considered

a legend today, the idea of a constructed language was in place. The mythical aspect to the field

contributes to the skeptical criticism regarding the field and those who study it.

Often times, the field is looked down upon as it does not concern the study of native

languages. In the eyes of some, linguists should focus on saving the languages that are currently

endangered instead of making up new languages. Aber, Marc de Oostendorp, a Dutch

linguist, was critical of this viewpoint which is evident in his writing, “Constructed Languages

and Linguistic Theory” (Oostendorp). In his piece, Oostendorp argues that constructed or

planned languages “have been made up in slightly different ways” and “serve different goals”

and are therefore valuable in ways that differ from the value of natural languages. (Oostendorp).

Though it is important to protect the languages which currently exist, it is beneficial for linguists

to study and construct languages in order to further the understanding and appreciation of how

language as a whole, Funktionen. Constructed languages are imperative in our understanding of

natural languages and how we perceive them. It is due to the debate over the value in studying

constructed languages that we find areas that are muddled, where only lack of research is to

blame.

Wahrnehmung

Having established the importance of constructed languages in the linguistic field, we can

now turn to the stereotypes we have and judgements we make based on that arise from perceived

7

linguistic features and whether those judgements were considered during the creation of a

language, particularly in science fiction films. As Dr. Lisa Davidson, a professor of linguistics at

New York University states, people tend to refer to languages with sounds primarily made in the

back of the vocal tract as “harsh-sounding” (Cronim). Aber, Davidson also stated that the

perspective of the listener will play a role in how the language sounds and could make the

language sound harsher than a person with an unbiased perspective (Cronim). Zum Beispiel, Die

velar fricative phonemic sound is commonly found in the German language and may not be

considered a harsh sound to a native speaker, but to an outsider, the sound might be classified as

such. A professor of German Linguistics at the University of California made the point that

negative stereotypes of a speaker will have an impact on how the language is perceived by the

listener (Cronim). A piece by Clive Upton, a professor of English at the University of Leeds in

England, came to a similar conclusion when he, in The Oxford History of English, gives attention

to the fact that certain accents are viewed unfavorably based on aesthetic grounds (Upton). Given

that accents are only differences in pronunciation, this research takes this idea one step further by

correlating the idea of unfavorable judgement based on accents to unfavorable judgement of

entire languages due to the phonetic sounds.

Medien

Movies have a large impact on their viewers, in more ways than one: Zum Beispiel,

movies can shape political views, moral beliefs, and important for this research, the way people

subconsciously perceive languages different from their own. The movies that I will incorporate

into my research are The Lord of the Rings franchise, Thor: A Dark World, and Star Trek: Into

Darkness.

8

The movie The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey was chosen from The Lord of the Rings

franchise. The movie is set prior to the original Lord of the Rings series, wherein the Hobbit,

Bilbo Baggins, first obtains the ring which causes the entirety of the problems in the rest of the

series (Jackson). The reason this movie is incorporated into this study is because this is one of

the movies where the audience is presented with the native Orc language (Jackson), known as

Black Speech. In this same movie, the audience is also presented with the language of the Elves,

specifically the Sindarin dialect, which will allow for a comparison the two languages with fewer

variables between them (Jackson). In the franchise, the Orc race is seen as the enemy while the

Elfin race is portrayed in a positive light and is who the main characters rely on for assistance

several times throughout the storyline (Jackson). In a book written by Michael Adams entitled

From Elvish to Klingon: Exploring Invented Languages, Adams makes the claim that Tolkien

(creator of the Lord of the Rings series) created the Elvish language to be “specifically pleasant”

(Adams). This claim relates directly to the research question which is whether or not the general

sound and formation of the language, on a historical premise, has anything to do with the image

the author wanted to present for that particular race The next movie used in this research is Thor:

A Dark World which is about the popular Marvel superhero Thor, a god of the Asgard realm,

who clashes with the Dark Elves, a race that wants to unleash an all-powerful weapon upon all

the realms in this fictional universe (Taylor). This movie was chosen because the Dark Elves

have a very guttural-sounding language, and its use in this research strengthens the hypothesis

that languages with exceedingly guttural sounds will cause the listener to perceive the language

more negatively than they would perceive a language without this linguistic feature. The last

movie that will be included in this study is Star Trek: Into Darkness. The movie details Captain

Kirk’s problematic mission to capture a powerful weapon of mass destruction

9

(Abrams). This movie was chosen because of its popular constructed language, Klingon. Klingon

is an antagonist language in the series, but is well-known as a constructed language. Though as

little bias as possible is desired, consideration will be given to Klingon due to its prominence

among lovers of science fiction, and variances between the perception of Klingon and other

languages may be attributed to its popularity.

Construction of Constructed Languages

David J. Peterson, renowned conlanger, states in The Art of Language Invention that a

conlanger can use “the expectations of their users/hearers to create a phonaesthetic effect”

(Peterson). Conlanger Mark Rosenfelder agrees, pointing out that “authors…make use of what

we might call phonetic stereotypes” (Rosenfelder). Aber, in The Art of Language Invention,

Peterson discusses the importance of creating a language based on the speaker of that language

(Peterson), while Rosenfelder emphasizes using stereotypes primarily for the listener to perceive

the speaker in a particular way (Rosenfelder). The understanding that in a fictional realm, Die

speakers of a conlang have several traits, is crucial when creating a language. Daher, it is

important to hinge one’s language on the speakers of that language and their qualities,

personalities, usw. The indicated discussion establishes a foundation for this research which aims

to determine how a conlanger can use the “phonaesthetic affect” (Peterson) to give depth to an

alien speaker.

METHODS

Survey

To begin exploring the question of the connection between linguistic features and listener

Wahrnehmung, I conduct a survey wherein participants are provided with an audio clip of the

languages used in this study, and then rate them on a scale from one to seven on various qualities.

10

A survey is essential in answering the research question thoroughly, given that using only my

perception of a language would not provide data that could be applied, even to some extent, An

the general population. The four qualities that participants rate the languages on are kindness,

attractiveness, intelligence, and honesty. These qualities were selected because all are quick

judgements an individual tends to make about the people they encounter, generally based on

their speech and body language. These qualities aid in determining whether or not the participant

judges a language, (and thus its speakers), favorably. Audio clips were chosen instead of video

clips in order to curtail the likelihood that the participants might recognize the language or the

movie the language is from. To eliminate as much bias as possible, the participants were asked

whether they recognize the language, and if they do, to what extent that recognition affects their

ratings.

Statistical Analysis

After the survey was conducted, the instances wherein the participant spoke/recognized

the language were removed in order to eliminate the bias that comes from knowing what

language the clip shows before rating it. To determine the statistical significance of the

relationship between constructed languages and the natural languages that were rated in the

survey, this research made use of the Chi-Square statistics test. The Chi-Square test is used to

assist a researcher in determining if any significant relationship exists between any two

categorical variables. The goal in performing the test was to find the amount of similarity that

exists between rating the qualities of the constructed language versus the natural language. Der

null hypothesis for this research is that there exists no difference in the way a participant rates a

constructed language versus a natural language. The alternative hypothesis states that there exists

a difference in the way a participant rates a constructed language versus a natural language. Das

11

test informs the researcher of which constructed languages and which natural languages the

population considers similar, based on survey results.

Transcription

After performing the Chi-Square test, this research requires a transcription of the

languages into the linguistic International Phonetic Alphabet, an alphabet used to document

languages based on the sounds that are used when speaking them. Based on this transcription, ICH

found patterns relating the survey participants’ ratings to certain sounds and then compare those

sounds to the languages of foreign enemies at the time that the constructed language was

invented. In order to find which phonemic sounds are particularly characteristic of a language, ICH

determined the average amount of occurrences a given sound has in the language, und dann

separated the sounds which occurred more than the average, and used those to clearly define a

relationship between languages. Von dort, a historical analysis predicated on stereotypes was

made by comparing the characteristic sounds of the constructed language and the natural

language that were rated similarly in more than one category. If the two languages were rated

similarly in only one category, they were excluded from the Chi-Square test analysis. Das ist

because a situation such as that could be attributed to coincidence.

12

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Languages Compared

Friendliness Intelligence Honesty Attractiveness

Sindarin vs. Deutsch

Sindarin vs. Koreanisch

Sindarin vs. Russian

Klingon vs. Koreanisch

4.715

Klingon vs. Deutsch

2.337

.640

4.248

2.949

2.633

4.283

Black Speech vs. Russian

2.875

4.124

1.025

Black Speech vs. Koreanisch

2.170

3.212

4.620

Black Speech vs. Deutsch

4.692

4.066

1.975

Figure 1: Lowest Chi-Squared Values for Language Comparisons

The comparisons that resulted in the lowest Chi-Squared values are shown above in Figure 1. All

values less than five are included in the chart. The smaller the Chi-Square value, the more similar

the two languages were rated. When the test was run, there were no comparisons for Shiväisith

which resulted in a Chi-Squared number of five or less, therefore it is excluded from the table.

This is also the case with the comparison of Klingon and Russian. A complete table of all the

Chi-Squared values can be found in the Appendix. The values shown in Figure 1 are relevant to

this study because this research requires an analysis of the most-similar ratings in order to judge

similarity of perception. From the table, it is clear that the comparisons of Black Speech with

each of the natural languages are the most similar, given that three of the four traits have a value

13

of less than five.

Black Speech Phonology Comparison

The phonology of Black Speech will now be discussed in order to highlight a more direct

comparison between natural languages and constructed languages. Black Speech will be

compared with all three of the natural languages because it was rated similarly in three of the

four categories for each of these natural languages. Erste, a comparison between Black Speech

and German will be made. Black Speech was created in 1943 by J.R.R. Tolkien, the English

author of The Lord of the Rings book series (Tolkien Gateway), and was then expanded by

language creators for the purposes of the movie adaptations. Since Tolkien is English, it is more

relevant to use historical relationships with the United Kingdom as opposed to the United States,

though they do not differ greatly. Worthy of mention is the fact that this was during the World

War II era, which lasted from 1939 until 1945 (Networks). The United Kingdom was involved in

this conflict with Germany, along with other countries fighting against Hitler’s regime. Daraus

conflict, we have developed several stereotypes of what qualities constitute a German.

Stereotypes such as the evil German scientist and even more broad concepts such as the idea that

“Germans have no sense of humor” or the ever-so-popular, “Germans are always angry.” None

of these stereotypes have anything to do with Germans themselves, and everything to do with

how society perceives them due to their role in historical conflicts. Once we begin to perceive a

group of people a certain way, everything about them becomes attached to that perception,

including their language. Based on the transcription of the dialogue presented in the survey, it

was found that the consonant phonemes common in the language are /k/, /z/, /dh/, /n/, /g/, and /r/

(note that these are all phonemes in the Black Speech language, however the phoneme /dh/ does

14

not occur as a single phoneme in English). The transcription of the German dialogue used in the

survey into IPA shows that the consonant phonemes that are characteristic of the language are /z/,

/d/ (a close phoneme to the /dh/ in Black Speech), /n/, and /r/. During World War II, the opposing

side was headed by Germany meaning that tensions were at an all-time high. Deshalb, it is

likely that Tolkien created this language, either subconsciously or otherwise, with influences

from the German language in order to further the antagonistic role that the Orcs in the series

represent in the series. Between Korean and Black Speech, there are no common characteristic

phonemes. These two languages were rated similarly, Jedoch; this study cannot claim that

Korean had any influence in the creation of Black Speech seeing that the two languages share

none of the characteristic phonemic sounds. This claim makes sense in the context of this study

because there were no significant conflicts between Korea and the United Kingdom until after

the creation of the language. Im Gegensatz, Black Speech and Russian share the characteristic

consonantal phonemes /r/, /z/, and /d/ (a close phoneme to the /dh/ in Black Speech). During

World War II (the time when Black Speech was created), Russia was an ally with the United

Kingdom, therefore citizens of the UK likely had a more positive perception of the Russian

Menschen, thereby the language. Though the two languages share a few of these phonemes, Das

research cannot make a claim as to whether or not Russian influenced the creation of Black

Speech. This is because one cannot assume he did not use it because they were an ally and he

was creating an antagonistic language, nor can one assume that he did use it for inspiration and

disregarded the perception of the Russian people and their language.

15

Sindarin Phonology Comparison

Turning toward the more protagonist language of Sindarin, the transcription of the

dialogue found that the characteristic consonantal phonemes are /θ/, /R/, /n/, /d/, and /l/. Sindarin

was created shortly after World War II by Tolkien for The Lord of the Rings book series, und

just like Black Speech, was expanded for the purposes of the films. (Tolkien Gateway). Though

Sindarin and Russian were rated similarly, they only share two characteristic consonantal

phonemic sounds which are /r/ and /d/. Deshalb, a claim cannot be made that Tolkien used the

language of the Russians (who were allies of the United Kingdom during World War II) to mold

the protagonist Sindarin language, at least not to any significant extent.

Klingon Phonology Comparison

The characteristic consonantal phonemic sounds of Klingon are /d͡ ʒ/, /v/, /x/, /p/, /m/, und

/b/, /d/, /n/, and /r/. This language was rated similarly to German, therefore this study will

compare the phonology of the two languages and their relationship to one another. These two

languages share the characteristic consonantal phonemes /m/, /d/, /r/ and /n/. Klingon was created

to add dimension to Star Trek: The Motion Picture in 1979 (Klingon Language Institute).

Deshalb, this language was created after the major conflict with Germany during World War II.

Given that the languages were created with several of the same characteristic consonantal

phonemic sounds, it can be determined that the creators of this language were using German for

inspiration during their creation process.

Shiväisith

Shiväisith did not present enough similarity in ratings to the natural languages to

establish a concrete relationship between the two. Aber, several factors go into the creation

of a language, and Shiväisith is no different. David Peterson, the conlanger (creator) of this

language, stated that he and the director wanted the language to be “reminiscent of, (but distinct

aus) Finnish.” due to the comic and movie’s connection with Norse mythology (D. Peterson).

Factors such as these are also taken into consideration when constructing a language to add

16

dimension to the characters speaking it.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DISCUSSION

Abschluss

The phonemic sounds of a constructed language do have an impact on the way the

audience perceives the constructed language. Außerdem, it is evident, especially through an

analysis of the Black Speech language, that historical events involving natural languages

influence how a listener perceives a constructed language. It should be realized that historical

events and cultural stereotyping are not the only aspects that influence a conlanger’s construction

of a language. Only focusing on how the language will be perceived by an audience will not

construct a successful path to depicting a character’s true culture, which is a significant purpose

of constructing languages.

Significance

In context of the broader field of linguistics, this research aids in the understanding of

how the listener perceives language, which applies not only to constructed languages but natural

languages as well. Conlangers can go on to create a language based on specific phonemic sounds

and produce a result that will enhance the probability that the perception of the conlang-speaking

characters will meet the conlanger’s satisfaction. The conlanger can also attempt to change the

connotation of harsher sounds through use of these sounds for protagonist characters, dadurch

eventually changing the perception of these sounds and moving past this surface-level

Kategorisierung. Through language, we see a division between “attractive” and “unattractive”

17

languages, which negatively enforces the need to categorize and stereotype. This classification of

languages, as shown in this research, seems to stem from historical backgrounds and not solely

the sounds of the language. This research should concern conlangers who want their language to

be perceived in a particular way; especially those working for the film industry who are asked to

create the language to fit a certain sound.

Limitations

The sound clips that were used in the survey were directly pulled from the movie itself,

therefore music and background noise likely played a role in how the listener perceived the

language. The survey included questions in order to limit bias as much as possible, however bias

could still be prominent if a participant recognized the language and failed to indicate this during

the survey. Any mistakes in the transcription of the dialogue or the counting of the results can be

attributed to mere human error. It should also be noted that the Chi-Squared test failed to present

values for a few of the comparisons, due to the fact that expected counts were not at the desired

minimum of five. Out of all of the conlangs, Black Speech was the language that yielded the

most results, therefore that is the language that was discussed to the greatest extent in this

research. This is a limitation in that the other constructed languages were unable to be analyzed

to as great an extent as Black Speech, however one can still see the relationship between

constructed languages and natural languages.

Delimitations

Taking into consideration the limitations of the study, we can now turn to the

delimitations. The survey received ninety-seven responses, a large enough sample size to get an

accurate picture of how an audience perceives these languages. Though the transcription of the

dialogues into the International Phonetic Alphabet may have errors, the phonology of the

18

languages was analyzed to the greatest possible extent. This helped to confirm or deny which

sounds were characteristic of each language. Though the Chi-Squared expected counts were not

where statisticians like them to be, the values that this study resulted in can still give the

researcher an idea of the relationship between a constructed and natural language.

Future Directions

For future study, it would be beneficial for the researcher to include more languages in

any research they conduct. This would allow for a more diverse survey; wherein more

historical/stereotypical connections could possibly be made. It should also be recommended that

any future surveyor use language clips of one individual speaking, as opposed to subjecting the

survey to the various tones and varying pronunciations of the actors who portray the alien

characters in film. Regarding the survey, it will benefit the researcher to randomize the clips of

sound so that the clips of language are not in the same order for all participants. This will

decrease the likelihood that the participant will become tired of listening to clips and rating them

as the survey progresses; deshalb, causing participants to rate the languages less accurately than

the languages at the start of the survey. To make the process easier, any future researcher might

want to begin the survey by asking the participant what languages they speak and/or are familiar

mit. This will eliminate confusion by removing responses where the participant recognizes the

language before conducting any further analysis. zuletzt, the researcher would benefit from using

clips of natural languages from movies as opposed to introductory language videos. Der

conlangs presented in the survey are more conversational whereas the natural languages

presented may be described as artificial. The natural languages attempt to help the audience learn

the language, therefore increasing the likelihood that the language sounds pleasing to the ear.

19

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge and thank Dr. Jessie Sams of Stephen F. Austin for her assistance

throughout the research process. I would also like extend a special thanks to David Peterson for

his time, technical contributions and overall advice.

Appendix

20

Languages Compared

Friendliness Intelligence Honesty Attractiveness

Shiväisith vs. Deutsch

N/A

9.688

11.301

N/A

Shiväisith vs. Koreanisch

N/A

5.532

20.775

31.451

Shiväisith vs. Russian

N/A

16.02

5.067

5.139

Sindarin vs. Deutsch

11.292

5.568

.640

N/A

Sindarin vs. Koreanisch

5.217

9.661

4.248

30.825

Sindarin vs. Russian

N/A

2.949

2.633

6.335

Klingon vs. Deutsch

2.337

8.515

6.844

4.283

Klingon vs. Koreanisch

4.715

7.529

10.628

N/A

Klingon vs. Russian

9.661

10.465

7.736

8.437

Black Speech vs. Deutsch

N/A

2.283

4.066

1.975

Black Speech vs. Koreanisch

2.170

4.692

3.212

4.620

Black Speech vs. Russian

2.875

4.124

1.025

18.159

Figure 1. Table of all the Chi-Squared Values for the Language Comparisons

21

Adams, Michael. From Elvish to Klingon: Exploring Invented Languages. New York: Oxford

Zitierte Werke

Universitätsverlag, 2011. Netz.

Conlangs. Dir. Ben Wood. Perf. Grant Goodall, et al. 2015. Netz.

Cronim, Melissa. German Sounds Harsher than Other Languages and Here’s Why (Video). 3

August 2013. Netz. 23 January 2017. .

Hinton, Leanne. The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice. San Diego: Academic

Drücken Sie, 2013. Netz. 22 3 2017.

.

Klingon Language Institute. 28 December 2016. Netz. 8 April 2017. .

Networks, AE Television. History Channel. 2017. Netz. 7 April 2017.

Nyland, Edo. Linguistic Arcaheology. FriesenPress, 2016. Netz. 12 January 2017.

.

Oostendorp, Marc de. “Constructed Language and Linguistic Theory.Schubert, Klaus. Planned

Sprache: From Plan to Reality. 2000. Netz.

Peterson, David J. The Art of Language Invention. New York: Pinguin-Bücher, 2015. Print. 21

March 2017.

Peterson, David. Research Involving Constructed Langauges. 13 January 2017. Netz.

22

Rosenfelder, Markieren. The Language Construction Kit. 1996. Netz. 1 April 2017.

.

Star Trek: Into Darkness. Dir. J.J Abrams. Perf. Chris Pine, et al. 2013. Netz.

The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey. Dir. Peter Jackson. Perf. Martin Freeman and Ian

McKellen. 2012. DVD.

Thor: The Dark World. Dir. Alan Taylor. Perf. Chris Hemsworth and Natalie Portman. 2013.

Netz.

Tolkien Gateway. 13 December 2015. Netz. 7 April 2017.

Eco, Umberto. The Search for the Perfect Language. Vol. 1. Wiley, 1995. 1 vols. Netz. 12

January 2017.

Upton, Clive. “Modern Regional English in the British Isles.The Oxford History of English. Ed.

Lisa Mugglestone. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. 305-333. Netz.Constructed Language: An Analysis of the Phonemic image

PDF Herunterladen

(2 Mal besucht, 1 Besuche heute)